Thursday, December 06, 2007
Back for Good
Bet you're all tired of the cheeky "Good Morning Campers" post. I know I am.
Don't know if any has been paying attention, but over the past two months I've been regularly posting on an OEDB as a paid writer. The site's been sold and the new owners aren't interested in continuing the "Wide Open" blog.
I wish the best to the OEDB guys and I'm glad I was a part of it, however briefly. I haven't had much time for blogging recently and being forced/incentivated helped me to get a rhythm going and to remember that I like to do it. I hope to do some more posts back here on Stingy Scholar in the future.
'Cause you know, it's not about the money...it's about the music. All those chicks and parties and blow, dude, that was just keeping us from focusing on the m-u-u-sic....
But seriously, if you want to pay me, drop me a line at wynnwilliamson at gmail dot com. I'm just a whore for the money.
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Writing for Professional Publication in National Refereed Journals
A Session for Faculty and Doctoral Students
California State University, San Bernardino
April 3, 2008
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University/The Texas A&M University System
1. Professional reasons for writing for publication
2. Personal reasons for writing for publication
3. How real writers behave
4. Writer’s write for the following reasons
5. How to get started
6. What will “sell” the editor on your work?
7. Formula: Brilliant Ideas + Good Luck + Knowing the Right People = Publication
8. On scholarly work
9. Reasons to write and publish journal articles
10. Writing and publishing journal articles enables you to…
11. Three basic types of articles: practical – review or theoretical – research
12. Quantitative Studies
13. Qualitative Research
14. On writing books
15. Four phases of book publishing (Fun – Drudgery – Torture – Waiting)
16. Some reasons to write a book
17. Where does the dollar go after a book is published?
18. What do editors and reviewers really want?
19. Earning approval from editors and reviewers
20. What to remember about bad writing
21. How to get fired as a reviewer
22. Publish or perish or teach or impeach
23. I’ve been rejected many times – should I give up?
24. In writing, how you read is important
25. How teachable is writing?
26. “I can’t seem to tell how my writing is going while I am doing it. Can you help?
27. Remember your purpose in writing
28. What differentiates ordinary writing from writing with style
29. It must get somewhat easier to write, otherwise, how would some authors become so prolific?
30. If writing for publication does not prove to be lucrative, why bother?
31. Why creative work is worthwhile
32. Show respect for your writing. It is about what the readers should know. If this puts a strain on a professional relationship, then so be it.
33. “Why I Write” (Orwell) Sheer egoism, aesthetic enthusiasm, historical impulse, and political purpose.
34. What really makes an academic write?
35. The Writer’s Essential Tools – words and the power to face unpleasant facts.
36. No human activity can sap the strength from body and life from spirit as much as writing in which one doesn’t believe.
37. “Because it was there.” Edmund Hillary. And with this comment he supplied generations with a ready-made and unanswerable defense for any new undertaking even writing.
38. Why we write.
39. Climbing Your Own Mountain
40. Be yourself. Have fun writing.
Please list any other topics you want Dr. Kritsonis to discuss.
281-550-5700 Home; Cell: 832-483-7889 – williamkritsonis@yahoo.com
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dr. Kritsonis Lectures at the University of Oxford, Oxford, England
In 2005, Dr. Kritsonis was an Invited Visiting Lecturer at the Oxford Round Table at Oriel College in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England. His lecture was entitled the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning.
Dr. Kritsonis Recognized as Distinguished Alumnus
In 2004, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis was recognized as the Central Washington University Alumni Association Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies. Dr. Kritsonis was nominated by alumni, former students, friends, faculty, and staff. Final selection was made by the Alumni Association Board of Directors. Recipients are CWU graduates of 20 years or more and are recognized for achievement in their professional field and have made a positive contribution to society. For the second consecutive year, U.S. News and World Report placed Central Washington University among the top elite public institutions in the west. CWU was 12th on the list in the 2006 On-Line Education of “America’s Best Colleges.”
Educational Background
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
Professional Experience
Dr. Kritsonis began his career as a teacher. He has served education as a principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, invited guest professor, author, consultant, editor-in-chief, and publisher. Dr. Kritsonis has earned tenure as a professor at the highest academic rank at two major universities.
Books – Articles – Lectures - Workshops
Dr. Kritsonis lectures and conducts seminars and workshops on a variety of topics. He is author of more than 500 articles in professional journals and several books. His popular book SCHOOL DISCIPLINE: The Art of Survival is scheduled for its fourth edition. He is the author of the textbook William Kritsonis, PhD on Schooling that is used by many professors at colleges and universities throughout the nation and abroad.
In 2007, Dr. Kritsonis’ version of the book of Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning (858 pages) was published in the United States of America in cooperation with partial financial support of Visiting Lecturers, Oxford Round Table (2005). The book is the product of a collaborative twenty-four year effort started in 1978 with the late Dr. Philip H. Phenix. Dr. Kritsonis was in continuous communication with Dr. Phenix until his death in 2002.
In 2007, Dr. Kritsonis was the lead author of the textbook Practical Applications of Educational Research and Basic Statistics. The text provides practical content knowledge in research for graduate students at the doctoral and master’s levels.
In 2008, Dr. Kritsonis’ book Non-Renewal of Public School Personnel Contracts: Selected Supreme and District Court Decisions in Accordance with the Due Process of Law is scheduled for publication by The Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, New York.
Dr. Kritsonis’ seminar and workshop on Writing for Professional Publication has been very popular with both professors and practitioners. Persons in attendance generate an article to be published in a refereed journal at the national or international levels.
Dr. Kritsonis has traveled and lectured throughout the United States and world-wide. Some recent international tours include Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Turkey, Italy, Greece, Monte Carlo, England, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Poland, Germany, and many more.
Founder of National FORUM Journals – Over 4,000 Professors Published
Dr. Kritsonis is founder of NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (since 1983). These publications represent a group of highly respected scholarly academic periodicals. Over 4,000 writers have been published in these refereed, peer-reviewed periodicals. In 1983, he founded the National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision – now acclaimed by many as the United States’ leading recognized scholarly academic refereed journal in educational administration, leadership, and supervision.
In 1987, Dr. Kritsonis founded the National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal whose aim is to conjoin the efforts of applied educational researchers world-wide with those of practitioners in education. He founded the National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, National FORUM of Special Education Journal, National FORUM of Multicultural Issues Journal, International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, International Journal of Management, Business, and Administration, and the DOCTORAL FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research. The DOCTORAL FORUM is the only refereed journal in America committed to publishing doctoral students while they are enrolled in course work in their doctoral programs. In 1997, he established the Online Journal Division of National FORUM Journals that publishes academic scholarly refereed articles daily on the website: www.nationalforum.com. Over 500 professors have published online. In January 2007, Dr. Kritsonis established Focus: On Colleges, Universities, and Schools.
Professorial Roles
Dr. Kritsonis has served in professorial roles at Central Washington University, Washington; Salisbury State University, Maryland; Northwestern State University, Louisiana; McNeese State University, Louisiana; and Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge in the Department of Administrative and Foundational Services.
In 2006, Dr. Kritsonis published two articles in the Two-Volume Set of the Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership and Administration published by SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, California. He is a National Reviewer for the Journal of Research on Leadership, University Council for Educational Administration (UCEA).
In 2007, Dr. Kritsonis has been invited to write a history and philosophy of education for the ABC-CLIO Encyclopedia of World History.
Currently, Dr. Kritsonis is Professor of Educational Leadership at Prairie View A&M University – Member of the Texas A&M University System. He teaches in the newly established PhD Program in Educational Leadership. Dr. Kritsonis taught the Inaugural class session in the doctoral program at the start of the fall 2004 academic year. In October 2006, Dr. Kritsonis chaired the first doctoral student to earn a PhD in Educational Leadership at Prairie View A&M University. He lives in Houston, Texas.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor
Doctor of Philosophy Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
(Member of the Texas A&M University System)
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View, Texas 77446
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
Central Washington University
College of Education and Professional Studies
Ellensburg, Washington
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
Oriel College
University of Oxford
Oxford, England
PhD, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1976
M.Ed. Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, Washington, 1971
B.A. Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington
Visiting Scholar, Columbia University, Teachers College, New York, 1981
______________________________________________________________________________
BOOKS
Kritsonis, W.A., & Mary Ann Springs (2008-09). Effective Teaching in the Elementary School. Murrieta, CA: The Alexis Group - ISBN 977-1-5130-5741-0
Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G., Bahrim, C., Marshall, R.L., Herrington, D., Hughes, T.A., & Brown, V.E. (2007). Practical Applications of Educational Research and Basic Statistics. Houston,TX: National FORUM Press – ISBN 0-9770013-4-2
Kritsonis, W. (2007) Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. Published in
cooperation with financial support of Visiting Lecturers, Oxford Round Table (2005),
Oriel College in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England. Distributed by National
FORUM Journals – ISBN o-9770013-3-14
Person, O. & Kritsonis, W. (2006) A Brief Analysis of the Historical Development of Higher
Education for African Americans. Houston, TX: National Forum Press
ISBN 0-9770013-1-8
______________________________________________________________________________
SELECTED PUBLICATIONS
2008 (16 Total)
Butler, N.L., Davidson, B.S., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G. (2008) International Education:
Do Polish Higher School Students Prefer Speaking in Person, Listening, Reading or Writing
During Spanish Classes? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
7 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED500292)
Kritsonis, W.A., & Marshall, R.L.(2008) Doctoral Dissertation Advising: Keyes to Improvement of Completion Rates. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Functions of the Dissertation Advisor. National Journal: Focus On Colleges, Universities, and Schools, 2 (1)
Herrington, D.E., Kritsonis, W.A., & Tanner, T. (2008). National Recommendations for Deconstructing Educational Leadership Courses: Re-Centering to Address the Needs of Students. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 25
Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Essential Reflections for Non-Profits and School Prior to Writing and Submitting Grant Proposals. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (3)
Joshua, M.T., Joshua, A.M., Obi, F.B., Umoinyang, I.E., Ntukidem, E.P., Kritsonis, W.A., Tanner, T., & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008). Conceptualization and Perceptions of Teaching as an Artistic Form: National and International Implications for Evaluation and Assessment. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 11 (1)
Joshua, A.M., Ukpong, E.M., Joshua, M.T., Kritsonis, W.A., Tanner, T., & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008). Distribution Patterns of the Four Fundamental Temperaments among Secondary School Students in Cross River State, Nigeria: National and International Implications. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 11 (1)
Joshua, M.T., Bassey, S.W., Asim, A.E., Kritsonis, W.A., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008). National and International Implications for Universal Basic Education: Primary School Teachers’ Perceived and Conceived Continuous Assessment Difficulties and Reporting Competence in Cross River South, Nigeria. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 11 (1)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 25(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 25(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 25(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. National FORUM Teacher Education Journal, 18(1 & 2)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 11(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). On-Line Scholarly Electric Journal Division, National FORUM Journals. Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
2007 (18 Total)
Hughes, T.A., Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, David (2007) Primary and Secondary
Education in Canada and Poland Compared: International Implications. The Lamar
University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495075)
Butler, N.L., Hughes, T.A., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) Native and Non-Native Teachers of English in Polish Schools-Personal Reflections: International Educational Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495206)
Hughes, T.A., Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, M.A., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) Religious Education in Government-Run Primary and Secondary Schools in Poland and Canada (Ontario and Quebec) - An International Focus. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495110)
Kritsonis, W. (2007). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 24(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2007). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 24(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2007). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 24(1)
International
Smith, C., Butler, N.L., Hughes, T.A., Herrington, D., & Kritsonis, W.A (2007).
TECHNOLINGUA, Cracow, Poland. June 25-26, 2007 – AGH University of Science and Technology. Paper presentation: Native vs. Nonnative English Teachers in Polish Schools: Personal Reflections
Smith, C., Butler, N.L., Hughes, T.A., Herrington, D., & Kritsonis, W.A (2007).
Conference on Problems in Language, Teaching, Vyatka State University of the Humanities, Kirov, Russia, February 14-15 2007. Three papers accepted and published: 1) Native and Non-Native Teachers of English in Polish Schools – Personal Reflections: International Implications, 2) Observations on Native vs. Nonnative EFL Teachers in Poland, 3) The Role of Communication Context, Corpus-Based Grammar, and Scaffolded Interaction in ESL/EFL Instruction
2006 (5 Total)
Hughes, T., Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006). A National Perspective for Cultivating
Working Relations Between Educational Researchers and Institutional Review Board
Members. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491999)
Herrington, D., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). A National Perspective for Improving Working
Relationships Between Educational Researchers and Institutional Review Board Members.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 19(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED49199)
Kritsonis, W. (2006). FOREWORD: Publishing and Mentoring Doctorial Student Research.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 23(3).
Note: This issue featured PhD Students in Educational Leadership from Lamar University’s
College of Education and Human Development, Beaumont,Texas
Kritsonis, W. (2006) FOREWORD: National Impact: Single Sex Education; Challenges for
Superintendents; Standardized Assessments; Inclusion; Issues and Challenges; Teacher
Retention. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal.
23(2) Note: This issue featured PhD Students in Educational Leadership from Prairie View
A&M University – Member of the Texas A&M University System.
Kritsonis, W. (2006). FOREWORD: A National Study and Analysis of Poverty and
African American Incarceration. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 23(1)
2005 ( 9 Total)
Marshall, R., & Kritsonis, W. (2005). School Finance Equity and Adequacy. In Fenwick
W. English (Eds.) Sage Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
Marshall, R., & Kritsonis, W. (2005). Rural and Small Schools. In Fenwick W. English
(Eds.) Sage Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
Kritsonis, W., (2005). Schwarzenegger Needs Schooling in Precedents.
EDUCATION WEEK, Vol. 25, No. 13, November 20, 2005, Page 39
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD: Teaching Latino Students: Effective Strategies for
Educating America’s Minorities: Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press
Kritsonis, W. (2005). William J. Slotnik’s Commentary “Mission Possible: Tying Earning
To Learning” EDUCATION WEEK, Volume 25, Issue 08, October 19, 2005, Page 35
Butler, L., Pachocinski, R., Davidson, B., Kritsonis, W., Van Patten, J., Borman, K.,
Johanningmeirer, E., Orlosfsky, M., & Marshall, R. (2006). Polish Post-Secondary
Vocational Schools and Canadian Community Colleges: International Perspectives.
International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity 8(1)
(ERIC Documentation Reproduction Services No ED492983)
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD: Developing Educational Leadership on a National Level.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 22(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD: Developing Educational Leadership on a National Level.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 22(2)
Note: This issue featured PhD Students in Educational Leadership from Prairie View A&M
University – Member of the Texas A&M University System
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD: Development of Educational Leadership Nationally.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 22(1)
2004 (3 Total)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). FOREWORD: National Initiatives Directed to Redesigning Educational
Leadership Programs Impacts School Leaders. National FORUM of Educational
Administration and Supervision Journal, 21(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). Basic Procedures in Educational Research and Design for Field Settings.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 21(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). FOREWORD: National Education: Implications in our Learning
Environment. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 21(2)
______________________________________________________________________________
Mentored Research
Dr. Kritsonis
Mentoring and Teaching Doctoral Students and Colleagues to Write for Professional Publication - Refereed Articles Published
2008 ( 39 Articles with Students)
Morgan, M., & Kritsonis, W.A.(2008) Beyond the First Days of School: The Recruitment,
Retention, and Development of Quality Teachers in Hard-to-Staff Schools: A National Focus.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 25 (3)
Journal, 25 (3)
Laub, J.D., DeSpain, B.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) An Analysis of the Rural Public School
Superintendency. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Journal, 25 (2)
Torrez, A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Smaller Learning Communities: Pre-Implementation Planning Critical to Success. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (2)
Ivy, Adam, I., Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A.(2008). The Challenge of Building Professional Learning Communities: Getting Started. National FORUM of Applied Education Research Journal, 21 (2)
McLeod, K., Tanner, T., & Kritsonis,W.A. (2008). National Impact: Model of a Culturally Active Classroom. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (2)
Hines, III, M., & Kritsonis, W.A.(2008). National Implications: Racial Differences in In-service Teachers’ Perceptions’ of Caucasian American Culturally Proficient School Leadership.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 25 (4)
Morgan, M. M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). The Real Philadelphia Experiment: How Benjamin
Franklin’s 13 Virtues can Save a School from Itself. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18 (3)
Butcher, J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) A National Perspective: Utilizing the Postmodern Theoretical Paradigm to Close the Achievement Gap and Increase Student Success in Public Education America. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 25 (4)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED499482)
Egbe, R., Ivy, A., Moreland, B., Willis, L., Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Ten Things to Consider When Developing a Survey or Assessment Instrument. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (3)
Glasco, R.L., Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Developing and Nuturing a Common Vision for Technology Integration in Education. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (3)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). National Implications: Implementing Postmodernistic Strategies and the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning for the Improvement of Ethical Conduct for the Improvement of Public Education. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (3) (ERIC Documentation Reproduction Service No.ED499279)
Watkins, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Aristotle, Philosophy, and the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning: A National Study on Integrating a Postmodernist Approach to Education and Student Academic Achievement. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (3)
(ERIC Documentation Reproduction Service No.ED499545)
Butcher, J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning to Assist Leaders in Retaining Alternatively Certified Teachers: Six National Recommendations for Improving Education in the United States of America. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED499483)
Bowman, E., Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Seven Ways to Increase At-Risk Student Participation in Extra-Curricular Activities. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18 (3)
Puentes, H., Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). A Case Study with National Implications: Student Mobility and Academic Achievement at a Selected Elementary School Campus. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18 (3)
Jedlicka, K., Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). The Persistence of Teacher Under-Utilization of Computer Technologies in the Classroom. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18 (3)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). National Agenda: Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning for the Improvement of Public Education. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18 (3)
Smith, M.M., Herrington, D.E., Kritsonis, W.A., & Tanner, T. (2008). National Implications: Ten Things to Consider When Teaching Mathematics to African American Students. National FORUM of Multicultural Issues Journal, 5 (1)
McLeod, K., Tanner, T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). National Recommendations for Improving Cultural Diversity: Model of a Culturally Active Classroom Setting. National FORUM of Multicultural Issues Journal, 5 (1)
Watkins, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). National Promise for Student Academic Achievement and Success: Connecting Learning Utilizing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. National Journal: FOCUS On Colleges, Universities, and Schools, 2 (1)
Taylor, J.H., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications: Quality of Effort and Selected Demographic Variables Contributing to the Prediction of Cognitive Outcomes. National Journal: FOCUS On Colleges, Universities, and Schools, 2 (1)
O’Brine,C.R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Segregation Through Brown vs. the Board of Education: A Setback or Landmark Case. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction No.ED499169)
Collins, C.J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Agenda: Implementing Postmodern Strategies
To Guide Educational Leaders in Creating Schools for Quality Learning in Public Education
in America. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction No.ED499554)
Coates-McBride, A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). The M&M Effect-Assessing the Impact of Merit Pay on Teacher Motivation: National Implications. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction No.ED499772)
Terry, L.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). A National Issue: Whether the Teacher Turnover Effects Students’ Academic Performance? DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499543)
Walden, L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). The Impact of the Correlation Between the No Child Left Behind Act’s High Stakes Testing and the Drop-Out Rates of Minority Students. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499541)
Springs, M.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). National Implications: Practical Ways for Improving Student Self-Concept Through Student Achievement. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499551)
Morgan, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). A National Focus: The Recruitment, Retention, and Development of Quality Teachers in Hard-to-Staff Schools. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
Charlton, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). The Documentation Process: The Administrator’s Role and the Interplay of Necessity, Support, and Collaboration. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499101)
Henderson, F.T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Graduation Rates at Historically Black Colleges and Universities: A Review of the Literature. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
Torrez, A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). National Impact for Pre-Implementation of Smaller Learning Communities. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499477)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Impact of the Mathematics Curriculum on the Success of African American High School Students. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2)
Smith, Y.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Leaving Good Teachers Behind: A Professional Dilemma. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2)
Norfleet, S., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Educational Leadership for Improved School-Community Relations. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2)
Watkins, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Utilizing the Ways of Knowing Through The Realms of Meaning for a Postmodern Approach to Effecting Change in Special Education. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2)
Brady, E.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Targeting Reading Fluency for ESL Students: A research based and practical application. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED500036)
Townsell, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Human Resource Management in Small Rural Districts: The Administrator’s Role in Recruitment, Hiring, and Staff Development. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED497694)
Love, A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) A Principal’s Role in Retaining First Year Teachers. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2)
Jacobs, K.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Utilizing The William Allan Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter Model as a Means to Cultivate a Legacy of Transformational Leaders in Schools.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2)
2007 ( 27 Articles with Students)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Banning Cell Phones in Public Schools: Analyzing
A National School and Community Relations Problem. National FORUM of Educational
Administration and Supervision Journal, 24(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED497423)
Townsell, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Who in the World is Ayn Rand? Doctoral FORUM-
National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 4(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED49467)
Anthony, T.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). A Mixed Methods Assessment of the Effectiveness of Strategic EMentoring in Improving the Self-Efficacy and Persistence (or retention) of Alternatively Certified Novice Teachers within an Inner City School District. Doctoral FORUM-National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 4(1) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED494448)
Patton, M.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). Great Minds Think Differently: Sustaining a System of Thinking. Doctoral FORUM-National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 4(1)
Berkins, C.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Curriculum Leadership: Curriculum for the At-Risk Student. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED498643)
Berkins, C.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Curriculum Leadership: New Trends and Career and Technical Education. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED498616)
Townsell, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) A National Look at Postmodernism’s Pros and Cons in
Educational Leadership. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
4 (Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED497693)
Butcher, J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Human Resource Management: Managerial Efficacy in
Recruiting and Retaining Teachers – National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer) (ERIC Documentation Reproduction Service No ED497357)
Williams, L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Leaders We Have a Problem! It is Teacher Retention…What Can We Do About It? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED497436)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Agenda: Development of Best Practices in
Human Resources using Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning as the Framework.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED497363)
Smith, C., Butler, N.L., Hughes, T.A., Herrington, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Observations
On Native vs. Non-native EFL Teachers in Poland. The Lamar University Electronic
Journal of Student Research, 4(Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED495201)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (20077) New Strategies for Educational Leaders to Implement
Postmodern Thinking in Public Education in the United States of America: Creating a
National Change Strategy. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction No.ED497435)
Jacobs, K., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Strategies for Implementing Postmodern Thinking for
Improving Secondary Education in Public Education in the United States of America:
National Impact. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
4 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495312)
Smith, C., Butler, N.L., Hughes, T.A., Herrington, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). Native vs Nonnative English Teachers in Polish Schools: Personal Reflections. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring) (ERIC Document Reproduction No ED495069)
Anthony, T.D., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) Postmoderism and the Implications for Educational Leadership: National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495291)
Anthony, T.D., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) National Cry for Help: Psychological Issues as They Relate to Education; A Realistic Approach to Understanding and Coping with the African American Males. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495296)
Anthony, T.D., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) An Analysis of Human Resource Management: Involving Administrative Leadership as a Means to Practical Applications: National Focus. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495294)
Anthony, T.D., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) How to Implement the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning in Human Resource Management-Ten Recommendation: National Impact. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED495293)
Jacobs, K.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Recommendations: Strategies for Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning for the Development of Professional Personnel. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495313)
Jacobs, K.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) An Analysis of the Objectivist Ethics in Educational Leadership Through Ayn Rand’s The Virtues of Selfishness (1964). The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495311)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Implications for Urban School Systems: Strategic Planning in the Human Resource Management Department in a Large Urban School District. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED497431)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Implications: Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning for Improvement of Ethical Conduct. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495067)
Butcher, J.T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning for the Improvement of Ethical Conduct: Ten National Recommendations. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495205)
Demaris, M.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Residential Learning Communities on Historically Black College and University Campuses. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED495305)
Smith, C., Butler, N.L., & Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) The Role of Communication Context, Corpus-Based Grammar, and Scaffolded Interaction in ESL/EFL Instruction. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495290)
Smith, C., Butler, N.L., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Observations on Native vs. Nonnative EFL Teachers in Poland. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495201)
Webb, P., Kritsonis, W.A., & Griffith, K.G. (2007) Spare the Rod, Destroy the Child: Examining the Speculative Association of Corporal Punishment and Deviant Behavior among Youth: National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED496203)
2006 ( 44 Articles with Students)
Jacobs, K.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). How to Implement the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning in Human Resource Management: Ten Recommendations for Selecting Campus Administrators. Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED494799)
Webb, P., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Zero-Tolerance Policies and Youth: Protection or Profiling? Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493837)
Collins, C.J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). National Viewpoint: The Importance of Hiring a Diverse Faculty. Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499556)
Watkins, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Developing a Curriculum for At-Risk and Low Performing High School Students: Teaching Shakespeare to At-Risk Students Through Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Skinner, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). How to Implement the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms Of Meaning as an Ethical Decision-Making Process to Improve Academic Achievement-Ten Recommendations. Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495079
Patton, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). The Law of Increasing Returns: A Process for Retaining Teachers- National Recommendations. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495298)
Williams, M.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Raising More Money at the Nation’s Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493566)
Skinner, D.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Educational Leaders as Stewards: Selecting a National Curriculum Guided by the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493140)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). National Agenda: A Holistic Approach for the Development of a Campus Improvement Plan using Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning as the Framework. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493111)
Townsell, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). National Insight: A Look at Synnoetics in One African
American Female’s Journey to the Principalship. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal
for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493442)
Demaris, M.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). A Philosophical Approach to Minority Student Persistence on a Historically Black College and University Campus. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493143)
Anthony, T.D., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Implications: An Analysis of E- Mentoring Induction Year Programs for Novice Alternatively Certified Teachers. Doctoral FORUM-
National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493137)
Anthony, T.D., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Bilingualism and How it Impacts the African American Child. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492546)
Cheng-Chieh L.., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). The Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Technology in Second Language Acquisition. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492159)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Crisis: Recognizing the Culture of Eating Disorders in School Settings. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492192)
Jacobs, K., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). An Assessment of Secondary Principal’s Leadership and Skills in Retaining and Renewing Science Educators in Urban Schools. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492156)
Jacobs, K., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Partially Decentralizing Administrative Practices in Secondary Schools to Develop Collective Staff Efficacy and Improve Student Achievement. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1))
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492155
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Dilemma: African American Students Underrepresented in Advanced Mathematics Courses. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492138)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). The Achievement Gap in Mathematics: A Significant Problem for African American Students. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492139)
Smith, Y.E., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Recommendations for Implementing Symbolics: Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492099)
Smith, Y.E., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). The Differences in Professional Development with Corporate Companies and Public Education. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492100)
Branch, R.M., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Agenda: Minority Teacher Recruitment, Development, and Retention. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499769)
Johnson, C.J., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). The National Dilemma of African American Students:
Disparities in Mathematics Achievement and Instruction. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 20(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492116)
Salinas, R.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006) All Children Can Learn…To Speak English.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 23(2)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491994)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006) National Strategies for Educational Leaders to
Implement Postmodern Thinking in Public Education in the United States of America.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 23(4)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492117)
Anthony, T., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Education in a Test Taking Era. National FORUM of
Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 24(4)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492142)
Jacobs, K., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Strategies for Implementing Postmodern Thinking
for Improving Secondary Education in Public Education in the United States of America.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 23(4
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492157)
Smith, Y., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Insight: Toward a Clearer Understanding of
Preparing High School Students for Passing State Examinations for Graduation in the State
of Texas. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 16(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.492013)
White, P., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006).The Analysis of the Influence of the Consciousness of the
History of Various Cultures on Student Achievement. National FORUM of Teacher
Journal, 17(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495300)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006) National Educational Dilemma:
What Does a Student Need to Know? Answer: Ways of Knowing Through the Realms
of Meaning. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 17(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492119)
Smith, Y., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Research Focus: Investigating the Differences in
Professional Development with Corporate Companies and Public Education in the United
States of America. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Journal, 24(4)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492014)
White, P., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). The Analysis of the Influence of the Consciousness of the
History of Various Cultures on Student Achievement. National FORUM of Teacher
Education Journal, 17(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED49530
Hughes, T., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Perspective: An Exploration of Professional
Learning Communities and the Impact on School Improvement Efforts. Doctoral
FORUM – National Journal for the Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student
Research, 1(1)
(ERIC Documentation Reproduction Service No.ED491997)
Petterway, A., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Focus: A Mixed-Methods Analysis of the
Impact of High Stakes Testing on English Language Learners in Major Urban High Schools
in Texas. DOCTORAL FORUM – National Journal for the Publishing and
Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 1(1)
ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491980)
Edgerson, D., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Analysis of the Influence of Principal-Teacher
Relationships on Student Academic Achievement: National Focus. DOCTORAL FORUM -
National Journal for the Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 1(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491985)
Parson, G., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Vision: An Assessment of the Habits of African
American Males from Urban Households of Poverty Who Successfully Complete Secondary
Education Programs. DOCTORAL FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and
Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 1(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491986)
Adams, C, & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Impact: An Analysis of Secondary Schools’
Crisis Management Preparedness. DOCTORAL FORUM – National Journal for
Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 1(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491991)
Petterway, A., & Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006). The Impact of High Stakes
Testing on the Academic Achievement of English Language Learners in Texas Public
Education: National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of
Student Research, 3(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491981)
Salinas, R., & Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006). Teacher Quality as a Predictor
of Student Achievement in Urban Schools: A National Focus. The Lamar
University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 3(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491993)
Jacobs, K., Kritsonis, W. (2006) National Agenda: Ten Suggestions to Incorporate the Realms of
Meaning as a Decision Making Process to Improve Student Achievement in the United States.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492179)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Immigration and Student Success Communication:
Journey as a Learning Organization. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student
Research, 3(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492118)
Branch, R., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Insight: Pragmatism: Proof is in the Results.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 3(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499770)
Anthony, T., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Outlook: An Epistemological Approach to
Educational Philosophy. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
3(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492240)
Presentations
2008
Guest Speaker, California State University, Los Angeles, College of Education, Los Angeles,
CA. Topic ”Writing for Professional Publication in National Refereed” April 2008
2007
Guest Speaker, Lamar University, College of Education and Human Services, Beaumont,
Texas. Topic: “Writing for Professional Publication in Scholarly Journals.” February 2007.
2006
Guest Speaker, California State University, Dominguez Hills, College of Education, Carson, CA.
Topic: “Writing for Professional Publication in National Refereed Journals.” March 2007.
March 2007.
2005
Invited Guest Lecturer, Oxford Round Table, Oriel College in the University of Oxford, Oxford,
England. Topic: “Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning.” July 2005.
Invited Guest Speaker, University of Oxford, Department of Educational Studies, Oxford,
England. Topic: “Publishing in Scholarly Journals,” July 2005
Dr. Arthur L. Petterway
25th Year Anniversary of National FORUM Journals
Founded in 1983
William Allan Kritsonis’ Contribution to Education
Arthur L. Petterway, PhD
Principal
Houston Independent School District
Houston, Texas
ABSTRACT
This year marks the 25th Year Anniversary of the founding of National FORUM Journals by Dr. William Allan Kritsonis. The following snapshot of the career of Dr. Kritsonis is a small tribute to his contribution to education.
__________________________________________________________________________
Founder of National FORUM Journals
Dr. Kritsonis is founder of NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (since 1983). These publications represent a group of highly respected scholarly academic periodicals. Over 4,000 writers have been published in these academic, scholarly, refereed, peer-reviewed journals.
Dr. Kritsonis Lectures at the University of Oxford, Oxford, England
In 2005, Dr. Kritsonis was an Invited Visiting Lecturer at the Oxford Round Table at Oriel College in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England. His lecture was entitled the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning.
Dr. Kritsonis Recognized as Distinguished Alumnus
In 2004, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis was recognized as the Central Washington University Alumni Association Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and
Professional Studies. Dr. Kritsonis was nominated by alumni, former students, friends,
faculty, and staff. Final selection was made by the Alumni Association Board of Directors.
Recipients are CWU graduates of 20 years or more and are recognized for achievement in their professional field and have made a positive contribution to society. For
the second consecutive year, U.S. News and World Report placed Central Washington
University among the top elite public institutions in the west. CWU was 12th on the list in the 2006 On-Line Education of “America’s Best Colleges.”
Educational Background
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
Professional Experience
Dr. Kritsonis began his career as a teacher. He has served education as a principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, invited guest professor, author, consultant, editor-in-chief, and publisher. Dr. Kritsonis has earned tenure as a professor at the highest academic rank at two major universities.
Books – Articles – Lectures - Workshops
Dr. Kritsonis lectures and conducts seminars and workshops on a variety of topics. He is author of more than 500 articles in professional journals and several books. His popular book SCHOOL DISCIPLINE: The Art of Survival is scheduled for its fourth edition. He is the author of the textbook William Kritsonis, PhD on Schooling that is used by many professors at colleges and universities throughout the nation and abroad.
In 2007, Dr. Kritsonis’ version of the book of Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning (858 pages) was published in the United States of America in cooperation with partial financial support of Visiting Lecturers, Oxford Round Table (2005). The book is the product of a collaborative twenty-four year effort started in 1978 with the late Dr. Philip H. Phenix. Dr. Kritsonis was in continuous communication with Dr. Phenix until his death in 2002.
In 2007, Dr. Kritsonis was the lead author of the textbook Practical Applications of Educational Research and Basic Statistics. The text provides practical content knowledge in research for graduate students at the doctoral and master’s levels.
In 2008, Dr. Kritsonis’ book Non-Renewal of Public School Personnel Contracts: Selected Supreme and District Court Decisions in Accordance with the Due Process of Law was published by The Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, New York.
Dr. Kritsonis’ seminar and workshop on Writing for Professional Publication has
been very popular with both professors and practitioners. Persons in attendance generate an
article to be published in a refereed journal at the national or international levels. Dr. Kritsonis has traveled and lectured throughout the United States and world-wide. Some recent international tours include Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Turkey, Italy, Greece,
Monte Carlo, England, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Poland,
Germany, and many more.
Founder of National FORUM Journals – Over 4,000 Professors Published
Dr. Kritsonis is founder of NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (since 1983). These publications represent a group of highly respected scholarly academic periodicals. Over 4,000 writers have been published in these refereed, peer-reviewed periodicals. In 1983, he founded the National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision – now acclaimed by many as the United States’ leading recognized scholarly academic refereed journal in educational administration, leadership, and supervision.
In 1987, Dr. Kritsonis founded the National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal whose aim is to conjoin the efforts of applied educational researchers world-wide with those of practitioners in education. He founded the National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, National FORUM of Special Education Journal, National FORUM of Multicultural Issues Journal, International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, International Journal of Management, Business, and Administration, and the DOCTORAL FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research. The DOCTORAL FORUM is the only refereed journal in America committed to publishing doctoral students while they are enrolled in course work in their doctoral programs. In 1997, he established the Online Journal Division of National FORUM Journals that publishes academic scholarly refereed articles daily on the website: www.nationalforum.com. Over 600 professors have published online. In January 2007, Dr. Kritsonis established the National Journal: Focus On Colleges, Universities, and Schools.
Professorial Roles
Dr. Kritsonis has served in professorial roles at Central Washington University, Washington; Salisbury State University, Maryland; Northwestern State University, Louisiana; McNeese State University, Louisiana; and Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge in the Department of Administrative and Foundational Services.
In 2006, Dr. Kritsonis published two articles in the Two-Volume Set of the Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership and Administration published by SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, California. He is a National Reviewer for the Journal of Research on Leadership, University Council for Educational Administration (UCEA).
In 2007, Dr. Kritsonis was invited to write a history and philosophy of education for the ABC-CLIO Encyclopedia of World History.
Currently, Dr. Kritsonis is Professor of Educational Leadership at Prairie View A&M University – Member of the Texas A&M University System. He teaches in the newly established PhD Program in Educational Leadership. Dr. Kritsonis taught the Inaugural class session in the doctoral program at the start of the fall 2004 academic year. In October 2006, Dr. Kritsonis chaired the first doctoral student to earn a PhD in Educational Leadership at Prairie View A&M University. He lives in Houston, Texas.
Dr. Kritsonis Mentoring and Teaching Doctoral Students and Colleagues to Write for Refereed Journals
Charlton, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Atlas Shrugged but Stumbled: A Layman’s Look at Ayn
Rand’s Objectivism. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Torrez, A., Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) The Virtue of Selfishness from a Humanitarian’s View.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Hogan-Chapman, A., & Kritsonis, W. (2008) Challenges and Techniques when Counseling Asian Americans: Implications for Classroom Teachers, School Administrators and Counselors:
National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
8 (Summer)
O’Brine, C.R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Christianity vs. Ayn Rand: An Exploration of Objectivism Through Atlas Shrugged. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Evans, L.M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Crisis: The Educational Achievement Gap Between High and Low Socio-Economic Students and Minority and Non-Minority Students.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Skinner, D.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Impact for Defining the School Counselor’s Role. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Morgan, M.M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Now and Again: How Ayn Rand’s Objectivist Theory
Shapes Present-Day Ethical Controversies. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer 2008)
Charlton, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Reflections on Rand’s The Virtue of Selfishness: Thoughts on Collectivism and Racism. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Demaris, M.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) The Classroom: Exploring Its Effects on Student Persistence and Satisfaction. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Are Polish Engineering Learners Studying German so That They Can Secure Employment in Germany? A Brief Commentary. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer).
Butler, N.L., Pirog, R., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Are Polish Post Secondary Vocational School Learners Studying English so That They Can Secure Employment in the UK and Ireland? A Brief Commentary. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Are Some Topics Uncomfortable for Polish Higher School Students to Discuss During English Classes?
A Brief Report. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Eisenman, R., Kritsonis, W.A. & Tanner, T. (2008) Assignment of Black and White College Students to Remedial Education Classes. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Greiner-Wronowa, E., Pusoska, A., Butler, N.L., Tanner, T., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Complementary Measurements to Diagnostic Glass Surface Corrosion by Raman Spectroscopy: Ground Breaking Research. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Do Poles Want Religion to be a Part of the School Leaving Exam (the Matura)? A Brief Note. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Do Polish Engineering Learners Prefer to Learn How to Speak German From a Native Speaker Than From a Non-Native Instructor? Snapshot Comment. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Do Polish Engineering Students Prefer Speaking in Person, Listening, Reading or Writing During German Classes? A Brief Note. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Davidson, B.S., Pirog, R., Kritsonis, W.A. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Do Polish Post-Secondary Vocational School Students Prefer Speaking in Person, Listening, Reading or Writing during English Classes? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Mroz, L., Pirog, R., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Do Polish Post-Secondary vocational Institution Learners Prefer to Learn How to Speak English From a Native Speaker than from a Non-Native Instructor? Snapshot Comment. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Pirog, R., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Do Polish Secondary School Learners Want Marks in Religion to Be Included in Year End Averages? A Brief Commentary. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Eisenman, R., Kritsonis, W.A., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) On Improving Student Grades and Graduation: A Snapshot of Minority and White Students’ Success from Supplemental Instruction at the University of Missouri at Kansas City. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) The Adolescent’s Perception of Failure (2008) The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Sturgis, K.., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Characteristics of the Postmodern Educational Leader: National Implications for Improving Education in America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
White, P.A. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Education in the United States of America: Six Philosophical Strategies for Selecting Curriculum Using the Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Sturgis, K.., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) How to Implement the Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning as a Process for Selecting Curriculum for the Development of the Complete Person.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Perkins, T., & Kritsonis, W.A.(2008) Improving Education in America: Implementing the Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
Smith, G., F. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Leadership for High School Reform in the United States of America: A Postmodern Concept within a Modernist Campus. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Collins, C.J. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Agenda: Implementing Postmodern Strategies to Guide Educational Leaders in Creating Schools for Quality Learning in Public Education in America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Holloway, F., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Agenda: Strategies for Improving Student
Learning and the Human Condition in Public Education in the United States of America.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Perkins, T., & Kritsonis, W.A.(2008) Improving Education in America: Implementing the Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
Collins, C.J. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications: Implementing Strategies for Improving Academic Achievement in Public Education in the United States. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Smith, G., F. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Leadership for High School Reform in the United States of America: A Postmodern Concept within a Modernist Campus. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Collins, C.J. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Agenda: Implementing Postmodern Strategies to Guide Educational Leaders in Creating Schools for Quality Learning in Public Education in America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Iwundu, L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications: Strategies for Dealing with Growing Diverse Populations in Public Education in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Brown, D.R., Jr., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications for Applying Transitional Leadership in a Postmodern Paradigm for Education in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Duong, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications for Postmodernism within the Realms of Educational Leadership. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Perkins, T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications: Postmodernism and Its Effect on Public Schools in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
Duong, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications for Educational Leaders in Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning in the Improvement of Academic Achievement. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Iwundu, L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Policy Issues and Trends: Strategies for Implementing Postmodern Thinking to Guide Decision Making in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
White, P.A. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Recommendations for Implementing Postmodernism in an Educational Organization for the Improvement of Public Education in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Evans, L. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Postmodern Philosophical Thinking: National Implications and Recommendations for Educational Leaders in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Evans, L. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Strategies for Improving Public Education in the United States of America: On the Development of Complete Persons. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Smith, G. F., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Strategies for Meeting National Standards and Improving Academic Achievement in Public Education in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Holloway, F., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) The Emerging Challenges for the World of Education:
That Was Then – This Is Now. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student
Research, 7 (Spring)
Jedrys. J., Butler, N.L. Tanner, T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Dissertation Summation: Application of Selected Geophysical Methods in Facies Differentiation on Upper Jurassic Sediments in the
Cracow--Czestochowa Upland. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
7 (Spring)
Butler, N.L. Tanner, T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Do Polish Higher Institution Learners Prefer to Learn How to Speak English from a Native Speaker Rather than from a Non-Native Instructor: A Snapshot Comment. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
7 (Spring)
Butler, N.L., Smith, S., Davidson, B.S., Tanner, T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Polish Post-Secondary Vocational Schools vs. Canadian Community Colleges: A Comparison of Information Accessibility and Accountability. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Butler, N.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Should Tuition Fees be required of Polish Higher School Students who Study Full-Time? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Butler, N.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Are Polish Higher School Students in Agreement with HIV/AIDS Education Awareness Programs in Polish Primary and Secondary Schools which Include Homosexual Practices? A Brief Note. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Trzaskus-Zak, inz Beata, Buter, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., & Griffith, K.G. (2008) A Method of
Designation of Marginal Volumes of Economical Factors on a Two-Part Sale Price in the
Gas Distribution Industry. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
7 (Spring)
Kuklina, S.S., butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A. & Griffith, K.G. (2008) Learning Tolls for Overcoming Difficulties in Structuring Cooperative Activities in EFL Classrooms.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., Hines III, M, & Griffith, K.G. (2008) International Education:
Are Polish Higher School Learners Studying Spanish So That They Can Secure Employment
in Spain? A Brief Commentary. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Butler, N.L., Davidson, B.S., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G. (2008) International Education:
Do Polish Higher School Students Prefer Speaking in Person, Listening, Reading or Writing
During Spanish Classes? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
7 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED500292)
Brady, E.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Targeting Reading Fluency for ESL Students: A research based and practical application. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED500036)
Finch, J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Unmarried Couples with Children. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
2008 Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, National Refereed, Blind-Reviewed, Peeer-Reviewed, Juried Publications
Reprinted with permission: "Educational Leaders as Stewards: Selecting A National Curriculum Guided by the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning" Journal of the Massachusetts chapter of ASCD, Harvard University Chapter, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Upcoming issue to accentuate the importance of developing a whole child curriculum. Summer 2008.
Hines, III, M.T., & Kritsonis (2008) An In-Depth Analysis of the Cognitive and Metacognitive Dimensions of African American Elementary Students’ Mathematical Problem Solving Skills. Focus On Colleges, Universities, and Schools, 2 (1)
Morgan, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Beyond the First Days of School: The Recruitment,
Retention, and Development of Quality Teachers in Hard-to-Staff Schools: A National Focus.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 25 (3)
Kritsonis, W.A., & Marshall, R.L.(2008) Doctoral Dissertation Advising: Keyes to Improvement of Completion Rates. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 25 (3)
Laub, J.D., DeSpain, B.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) An Analysis of the Rural Public School
Superintendency. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Journal, 25 (2)
Torrez, A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Smaller Learning Communities: Pre-Implementation Planning Critical to Success. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (2)
Ivy, Adam, I., Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A.(2008). The Challenge of Building Professional Learning Communities: Getting Started. National FORUM of Applied Education Research Journal, 21 (2)
McLeod, K., Tanner, T., & Kritsonis,W.A. (2008). National Impact: Model of a Culturally Active Classroom. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (2)
Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Functions of the Dissertation Advisor. National Journal: Focus On Colleges, Universities, and Schools, 2 (1)
Hines, III, M., & Kritsonis, W.A.(2008). National Implications: Racial Differences in In-service Teachers’ Perceptions’ of Caucasian American Culturally Proficient School Leadership.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 25 (4)
Morgan, M. M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). The Real Philadelphia Experiment: How Benjamin
Franklin’s 13 Virtues can Save a School from Itself. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18 (3)
Herrington, D.E., Kritsonis, W.A., & Tanner, T. (2008). National Recommendations for Deconstructing Educational Leadership Courses: Re-Centering to Address the Needs of Students. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 25
Butcher, J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) A National Perspective: Utilizing the Postmodern Theoretical Paradigm to Close the Achievement Gap and Increase Student Success in Public Education America. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 25 (4)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED499482)
Egbe, R., Ivy, A., Moreland, B., Willis, L., Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Ten Things to Consider When Developing a Survey or Assessment Instrument. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (3)
Glasco, R.L., Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Developing and Nuturing a Common Vision for Technology Integration in Education. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (3)
Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Essential Reflections for Non-Profits and School Prior to Writing and Submitting Grant Proposals. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (3)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). National Implications: Implementing Postmodernistic Strategies and the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning for the Improvement of Ethical Conduct for the Improvement of Public Education. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (3) (ERIC Documentation Reproduction Service No.ED499279)
Watkins, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Aristotle, Philosophy, and the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning: A National Study on Integrating a Postmodernist Approach to Education and Student Academic Achievement. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (3)
(ERIC Documentation Reproduction Service No.ED499545)
Butcher, J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning to Assist Leaders in Retaining Alternatively Certified Teachers: Six National Recommendations for Improving Education in the United States of America. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21 (3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED499483)
Bowman, E., Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Seven Ways to Increase At-Risk Student Participation in Extra-Curricular Activities. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18 (3)
Puentes, H., Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). A Case Study with National Implications: Student Mobility and Academic Achievement at a Selected Elementary School Campus. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18 (3)
Jedlicka,K., Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). The Persistence of Teacher Under-Utilization of Computer Technologies in the Classroom. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18 (3)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). National Agenda: Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning for the Improvement of Public Education. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18 (3)
Smith, M.M., Herrington, D.E., Kritsonis, W.A., & Tanner, T. (2008). National Implications: Ten Things to Consider When Teaching Mathematics to African American Students. National FORUM of Multicultural Issues Journal, 5 (1)
McLeod, K., Tanner, T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). National Recommendations for Improving Cultural Diversity: Model of a Culturally Active Classroom Setting. National FORUM of Multicultural Issues Journal, 5 (1)
Joshua, M.T., Joshua, A.M., Obi, F.B., Umoinyang, I.E., Ntukidem, E.P., Kritsonis, W.A., Tanner, T., & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008). Conceptualization and Perceptions of Teaching as an Artistic Form: National and International Implications for Evaluation and Assessment. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 11 (1)
Joshua, A.M., Ukpong, E.M., Joshua, M.T., Kritsonis, W.A., Tanner, T., & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008). Distribution Patterns of the Four Fundamental Temperaments among Secondary School Students in Cross River State, Nigeria: National and International Implications. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 11 (1)
Joshua, M.T., Bassey, S.W., Asim, A.E., Kritsonis, W.A., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008). National and International Implications for Universal Basic Education: Primary School Teachers’ Perceived and Conceived Continuous Assessment Difficulties and Reporting Competence in Cross River South, Nigeria. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 11 (1)
Kritsonis, W. A. (2008). Functions of the Dissertation Advisor. National Journal: FOCUS On Colleges, Universities, and Schools, 2 (1)
Watkins, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). National Promise for Student Academic Achievement and Success: Connecting Learning Utilizing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. National Journal: FOCUS On Colleges, Universities, and Schools, 2 (1)
Taylor, J.H., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications: Quality of Effort and Selected Demographic Variables Contributing to the Prediction of Cognitive Outcomes. National Journal: FOCUS On Colleges, Universities, and Schools, 2 (1)
O’Brine,C.R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Segregation Through Brown vs. the Board of Education: A Setback or Landmark Case. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction No.ED499169)
Collins, C.J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Agenda: Implementing Postmodern Strategies
To Guide Educational Leaders in Creating Schools for Quality Learning in Public Education
in America. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction No.ED499554)
Coates-McBride, A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). The M&M Effect-Assessing the Impact of Merit Pay on Teacher Motivation: National Implications. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction No.ED499772)
Terry, L.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). A National Issue: Whether the Teacher Turnover Effects Students’ Academic Performance? DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499543)
Walden, L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). The Impact of the Correlation Between the No Child Left Behind Act’s High Stakes Testing and the Drop-Out Rates of Minority Students. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499541)
Springs, M.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). National Implications: Practical Ways for Improving Student Self-Concept Through Student Achievement. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499551)
Morgan, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). A National Focus: The Recruitment, Retention, and Development of Quality Teachers in Hard-to-Staff Schools. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.499323)
Charlton, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). The Documentation Process: The Administrator’s Role and the Interplay of Necessity, Support, and Collaboration. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499101)
Henderson, F.T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). Graduation Rates at Historically Black Colleges and Universities: A Review of the Literature. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
Torrez, A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008). National Impact for Pre-Implementation of Smaller Learning Communities. DOCTORAL FORUM: National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 5 (1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499477)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Impact of the Mathematics Curriculum on the Success of African American High School Students. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2)
Smith, Y.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Leaving Good Teachers Behind: A Professional Dilemma. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2)
Norfleet, S., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Educational Leadership for Improved School-Community Relations. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2)
Watkins, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Utilizing the Ways of Knowing Through The Realms of Meaning for a Postmodern Approach to Effecting Change in Special Education. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2)
Townsell, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Human Resource Management in Small Rural Districts: The Administrator’s Role in Recruitment, Hiring, and Staff Development. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED497694)
Love, A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) A Principal’s Role in Retaining First Year Teachers. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2)
Jacobs, K.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Utilizing The William Allan Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter Model as a Means to Cultivate a Legacy of Transformational Leaders in Schools.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 18(1& 2)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 25(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 25(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 25(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 21(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. National FORUM Teacher Education Journal, 18(1 & 2)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 11(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2008). On-Line Scholarly Electric Journal Division, National FORUM Journals. Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Professor, PhD Program in Educational Leadership, PVAMU, The Texas A&M University System
PhD Students/Dr. Kritsonis, Dissertation Chair & Dissertation Committee Member
Doctoral Directed Research, PhD Program in Educational Leadership, Prairie View A&M University, The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education, Member of the Texas A&M University System,
Cohort I (Fall 2004)
Cheantel Adams PhD Doctoral Dissertation CHAIR
AN ANALYSIS OF TEXAS SECONDARY SCHOOLS’ CRISIS
MANAGEMENT PREPAREDNESS
Gary Bates PhD Doctoral Dissertation CHAIR – (Graduated 5/07)
A MIXED METHODS ANALYSIS OF AFRICAN AMERICANS IN
THE SUPERINTENDENCY
Gail Cyrus-Parson PhD Doctoral Dissertation Committee – (Graduated 12/07)
ASSESSMENT OF THE HABITS OF AFRICAN AMERICAN
MALES WHO HAVE SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETED SECONDARY
PROGRAMS
David Edgerson PhD Doctoral Dissertation CHAIR
ANALYSIS OF THE INFLUENCE OF PRINCIPAL-TEACHER
RELATIONSHIPS ON STUDENT ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Teresa Hughes PhD Doctoral Dissertation Committee CHAIR (Graduated 12/2006)
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROFESSIONAL LEARNING
COMMUNITIES AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN HIGH
SCHOOLS
H.P. Hyder, III PhD Doctoral Dissertation Committee
THE INTERPLAY AMONG STUDENT MOBILITY ON STUDENT
ACHIEVEMENT, ATTENDANCE, AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
IN TEXAS MIDDLE SCHOOLS
James Laub PhD Doctoral Dissertation CHAIR (Graduated 5/07)
AN ANALYSIS OF THE RURAL PUBLIC SCHOOL
SUPERNTENDENCY
Nasrin PhD Doctoral Dissertation CHAIR
Nazemzadeh INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA
Lautrice Nickson PhD Doctoral Dissertation Committee – (Graduated 5/07)
AN ANALYSIS OF FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SPECIAL
EDUCATORS TO REMAIN IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATION
Arthur Petterway PhD Doctoral Dissertation Committee – (Graduated 8/07)
A MIXED METHODS ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF HIGH
STAKES TESTING ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS IN
MAJOR URBAN HIGH SCHOOLS IN TEXAS
Roselia Salinas PhD Doctoral Dissertation CHAIR - (Graduated 12/07)
A COMPARISION OF ALTERNATIVE AND TRADITIONAL
CERTIFIED BILINGUAL ELEMENTARY TEACHERS’ STUDENT
ACHIEVEMENT SCORES IN MAJOR URBAN TEXAS SCHOOLS
Samuel Stephens PhD Doctoral Dissertation Committee – (Graduated 8/07)
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ON OUTSTANDING SCHOOL
LEADERS: IS IT A SIGNIFICANT FACTOR IN THEIR SUCCESS
AND HOW DID THEY DEVELOP IT?
Melody Wilson PhD Doctoral Dissertation Committee CHAIR – (Graduated 5/07)
THE IMPACT OF A PUBLIC PRE-KINDERGARTEN MONTESSORI
PROGRAM ON KINDERGARTEN TEXAS PRIMARY READING
INVENTORY SCORES
Frances Worthey PhD Doctoral Dissertation CHAIR
MIXED-METHOD INVIESTIGATION OF THE RETENTION AND
PLACEMENT OF FEMALES PURSUING NON-TRADITIONAL
FIELDS OF STUDY IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Cohort II (Summer 2005)
Allena Anderson PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
THE IMPACT OF THE CHANGING CULTURAL DYNAMICS AND
DEMOGRAPHICS ON MAJOR URBAN PUBLIC SCHOOL
ADMINISTRATION
Taiwanna Anthony PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
AN ANALYSIS OF E-MENTORING INDUCTION YEAR PROGRAMS
FOR NOVICE ALTERNATIVELY CERTIFIED TEACHERS
Cynthia Berkins PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
A STUDY OF ORGANIZATIONAL AND PROGRAMMATIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
Robert Branch PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
MINORITY TEACHER RECRUITMENT, DEVELOPMENT,
AND RETENTION IN THE SOUTHERN STATES
Eunetra Ellison PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
THE IMPACT OF STRATEGIC TUTORING ON THE HIGH STAKES
TEST SCORES OF AT-RISK STUDENTS
Barbara Scott- PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
Ferguson THE CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS OF PARENTS AND THE EFFECTS
OF THE MANDATORY UNIFORM POLICY
Sorie Gassama PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
DROP-OUT PREVENTION AMONG URBAN MINORITY
ADOLESCENTS: PROGRAM EVALUATION AND PRACTICAL
EVALUATIONS
Janetta Gilliam PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
THE RELATIONSHIP OF RETENTION AND MENTORING OF
AFRICAN AMERICAN FRESHMENT STUDENTS AT SELECTED
HISTORICALLY BLACK COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
Karen Jacobs PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
ASSESSMENT OF SECONDARY PRINCIPALS’ LEADERSHIP
BEHAVIORS IN RECRUTING, RETAINING, AND RENEWING
SCIENCE EDUCATORS IN URBAN SCHOOLS
Clarence Johnson PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
THE AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENT: FAILLING TO MAKE
THE GRADE IN MATHEMATICS
Cheng-Chieh Lai PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
THE EFFECTS OF COMUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING
PROGRAMS ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISTION FOR
ENGLISH AS SECOND LANGUAGE STUDENTS
Alfreda Love PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
THE IMPACT OF NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND ON LOW
PERFORMING SCHOOLS
Jacqueline McNeir PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
THE IMPACT OF SMALLER LEARNING COMMUNITIES ON
URBAN STUDENT PROGRESSION BETWEEN THE NINTH AND
TENTH GRADES
Steven Norfleet PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
AFRICAN AMERICAN PERSPECTIVES ON HIGH SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS LEADING TO POST SECONDARY LEARNING
SUCCESS
Yolanda Smith PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR (Graduated 5/08)
DIFFERENCES IN PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT TRAINING
BETWEEN ONE CORPORATION AND ONE LARGE TEXAS
PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT
Grace Thomas PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
A STUDY OF THE FACTORS THAT IMPACT THE ACHIEVEMENT
AMONG MINORITY STUDENTS: A COMPARISON AMONG
ASIAN-AMERICANS, AFRICAN-AMERICANS, AND HISPANIC
STUDENTS IN LARGE URBAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS
Julie Williams PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
A CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC APPROACH TO
TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS
Cohort III (Summer 2007)
Donald Brown, Jr. PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
REDUCING THE RATES OF RECIDIVISM FOR AFRICAN
AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS ENROLLED IN ALTERNATIVE
EDUCATION PROGRAMS
Jennifer Butcher PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
A MXED-METHODS ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF MENTORING
AND INDUCTIVE PROGRAMS ON NEW TEACHER RETENTION IN
SELECTED SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN TEXAS
Michelle Cloud PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
THE SUCCESSFUL INTEGRATION OF TRANSFER STUDENTS
FROM THEIR HOME CAMPUS TO THEIR DESIGNATED
“SCHOOL OF CHOICE” AS PRESCRIBED BY THE NO CHILD
LEFT BEHIND ACT
Crystal Collins PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
A STUDY OF DIVERSE FACULTY HIRNIG PRACTICES AND THE
EFFECT ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT AND THE NECESSARY
HIRING PROCEDURES FOR HIRING DIVERSE FACULTY
Michalyn Demaris PhD Doctoral Student - Dissertation Committee
INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT STUDENT
SATISFACTION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON PERSISTENCE AT
A HISTORICALLY BLACK COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY
Rickie Duncan PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
THE EFFECTS OF STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT ON IMPROVING
STUDENT DISCIPLINE
Rebecca Duong PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
THE EFFECTS OF TEACHER EFFICACY ON THE ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT OF 9th GRADE ESL STUDENTS IN TEXAS
LaShonda Evans PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
THE EFFECT OF THE AVID PROGRAM ON 9TH GRADE
STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT
Gayle Ferguson PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
Smith COLLEGE READINESS: THE EFFECTS OF EARLY COLLEGE
HIGH SCHOOL ON AFRICAN AMERICAN AND HISPANIC MALES
Fletcher Holloway PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
THE ACADEMIC EFFECT OF SINGLE GENDER SCHOOLS ON
LOW INCOME AND ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED
MINORITY STUDENTS
La’Shonte Iwundu PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
A STUDY OF THE STRATEGIC ROLE OF HUMAN RESOURCE
DIRECTORS AND HOW THEY CAN CONTRIBUTE TO
EMPLOYEE RETENTION
Selena Melvin PhD Doctoral Student- Dissertation CHAIR
BARRIERS TO THE SUCCESS OF ACADEMICALLY HIGH RISK
ACHIEVEING AFRICAN AMERICANS
Margaret Patton PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
THE IMPACT OF A PILOT EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
PROGRAM ON PRINCIPAL PREPARATION
Tracy Perkins PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
TRUANCY REDUCTION: KEEPING STUDENTS IN SCHOOL
Ellen Savoy PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
A STUDY OF PRINCIPALS’ PERCEPTIONS OF SPECIAL
EDUCATION TEACHERS IN PUBLIC EDUCATION
Desiree Skinner PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
A COMPARSION OF ALGEBRA UNDERSTANDING OF ENGLISH
LANGUAGE IN SHELTERED AND MAINSTREAM ALGEBRA
CLASSES
Kimberlin Sturgis PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
A STUDY OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS
AND HOW IT IMPACTS ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR
MINORITY STUDENTS
Rhondena Townsell PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
THE SUCCESS RATE OF AFRICAN AMERICAN FEMALS IN
RURAL SCHOOLS
Debra Watkins PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR ENHANCHING COGNITIVE
THINKING AND IMPROVING ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Porchanee White PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
A STUDY OF AFRICAN AMERICAN PARENTAL AND STUDENT
ATTITUDES ON TEACHER EFFICACY: EMPOWERING STUDENTS
TO READ
Monica Williams PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
ENGAGING HISTORICALLY BLACK COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY
PRESIDENT IN ENTREPRENEURIALISM THROUGH FUNDRISING
Cohort IV (Fall 2007)
Donna Charlton PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
Alison B. McBride PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
Misti Morgan PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
Christopher O’Brine PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
Mary Ann Springs PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
Loretta A. Terry PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
Alex Torrez PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation CHAIR
Lavada Walden PhD Doctoral Student – Dissertation Committee
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
Business Address: Professor (Tenured)
Prairie View A&M University
Doctor of Philosophy Program in Educational Leadership
College of Education
Prairie View, TX 77446
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Personal Data: Height: 5’5”
Weight: 152 lbs.
Citizenship: United States
Iowa Credentials: Teacher, Life
Elementary Principal and Supervisor, Life
Superintendent, County and Local
Washington Credentials: Teacher, Life
Elementary and Secondary Principal, Life
Superintendent, County and Local
Louisiana Credentials: Teacher, Life
Elementary and Secondary Principal
Superintendent
National Teacher Passed Educational Leadership: Administration Supervision, 1989
Examination (NTE) Passed Education in the Elementary School, 1989
Certified Distance Successfully completed requirements for the Distance Education
Education Professional Certification Program co-sponsored by The Center for Distance Learning Research and Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, Awarded November 19, 1989.
Approved/Funded Developed and presented a proposal to the Technological Advancements for Students Committee, representing the Department of Educational Leadership & Instructional Technology at McNeese State University for a Document Camera for use in regular classrooms and possibly in distance learning/compressed video settings. Funded: $126,957.19.
Mentored Research - 2008
Dr. Kritsonis
Mentoring and Teaching Doctoral Students and Colleagues to Write for Refereed Journals
Charlton, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Atlas Shrugged but Stumbled: A Layman’s Look at Ayn
Rand’s Objectivism. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Torrez, A., Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) The Virtue of Selfishness from a Humanitarian’s View.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Hogan-Chapman, A., & Kritsonis, W. (2008) Challenges and Techniques when Counseling Asian Americans: Implications for Classroom Teachers, School Administrators and Counselors:
National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
8 (Summer)
O’Brine, C.R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Christianity vs. Ayn Rand: An Exploration of Objectivism Through Atlas Shrugged. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Evans, L.M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Crisis: The Educational Achievement Gap Between High and Low Socio-Economic Students and Minority and Non-Minority Students.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Skinner, D.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Impact for Defining the School Counselor’s Role. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Morgan, M.M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Now and Again: How Ayn Rand’s Objectivist Theory
Shapes Present-Day Ethical Controversies. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer 2008)
Charlton, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Reflections on Rand’s The Virtue of Selfishness: Thoughts on Collectivism and Racism. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Demaris, M.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) The Classroom: Exploring Its Effects on Student Persistence and Satisfaction. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Are Polish Engineering Learners Studying German so That They Can Secure Employment in Germany? A Brief Commentary. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer).
Butler, N.L., Pirog, R., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Are Polish Post Secondary Vocational School Learners Studying English so That They Can Secure Employment in the UK and Ireland? A Brief Commentary. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Are Some Topics Uncomfortable for Polish Higher School Students to Discuss During English Classes?
A Brief Report. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Eisenman, R., Kritsonis, W.A. & Tanner, T. (2008) Assignment of Black and White College Students to Remedial Education Classes. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Greiner-Wronowa, E., Pusoska, A., Butler, N.L., Tanner, T., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Complementary Measurements to Diagnostic Glass Surface Corrosion by Raman Spectroscopy: Ground Breaking Research. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Do Poles Want Religion to be a Part of the School Leaving Exam (the Matura)? A Brief Note. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Do Polish Engineering Learners Prefer to Learn How to Speak German From a Native Speaker Than From a Non-Native Instructor? Snapshot Comment. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Do Polish Engineering Students Prefer Speaking in Person, Listening, Reading or Writing During German Classes? A Brief Note. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Davidson, B.S., Pirog, R., Kritsonis, W.A. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Do Polish Post-Secondary Vocational School Students Prefer Speaking in Person, Listening, Reading or Writing during English Classes? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Mroz, L., Pirog, R., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Do Polish Post-Secondary vocational Institution Learners Prefer to Learn How to Speak English From a Native Speaker than from a Non-Native Instructor? Snapshot Comment. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Pirog, R., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) Do Polish Secondary School Learners Want Marks in Religion to Be Included in Year End Averages? A Brief Commentary. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Eisenman, R., Kritsonis, W.A., Tanner, T. & DeMoulin, D.F. (2008) On Improving Student Grades and Graduation: A Snapshot of Minority and White Students’ Success from Supplemental Instruction at the University of Missouri at Kansas City. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) The Adolescent’s Perception of Failure (2008) The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 8 (Summer)
Sturgis, K.., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Characteristics of the Postmodern Educational Leader: National Implications for Improving Education in America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
White, P.A. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Education in the United States of America: Six Philosophical Strategies for Selecting Curriculum Using the Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Sturgis, K.., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) How to Implement the Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning as a Process for Selecting Curriculum for the Development of the Complete Person.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Perkins, T., & Kritsonis, W.A.(2008) Improving Education in America: Implementing the Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
Smith, G., F. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Leadership for High School Reform in the United States of America: A Postmodern Concept within a Modernist Campus. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Collins, C.J. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Agenda: Implementing Postmodern Strategies to Guide Educational Leaders in Creating Schools for Quality Learning in Public Education in America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Holloway, F., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Agenda: Strategies for Improving Student
Learning and the Human Condition in Public Education in the United States of America.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Perkins, T., & Kritsonis, W.A.(2008) Improving Education in America: Implementing the Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
Collins, C.J. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications: Implementing Strategies for Improving Academic Achievement in Public Education in the United States. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Smith, G., F. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Leadership for High School Reform in the United States of America: A Postmodern Concept within a Modernist Campus. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Collins, C.J. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Agenda: Implementing Postmodern Strategies to Guide Educational Leaders in Creating Schools for Quality Learning in Public Education in America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Iwundu, L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications: Strategies for Dealing with Growing Diverse Populations in Public Education in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Brown, D.R., Jr., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications for Applying Transitional Leadership in a Postmodern Paradigm for Education in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Duong, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications for Postmodernism within the Realms of Educational Leadership. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Perkins, T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications: Postmodernism and Its Effect on Public Schools in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
Duong, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Implications for Educational Leaders in Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning in the Improvement of Academic Achievement. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Iwundu, L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Policy Issues and Trends: Strategies for Implementing Postmodern Thinking to Guide Decision Making in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
White, P.A. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) National Recommendations for Implementing Postmodernism in an Educational Organization for the Improvement of Public Education in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Evans, L. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Postmodern Philosophical Thinking: National Implications and Recommendations for Educational Leaders in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Evans, L. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Strategies for Improving Public Education in the United States of America: On the Development of Complete Persons. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Smith, G. F., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Strategies for Meeting National Standards and Improving Academic Achievement in Public Education in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Holloway, F., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) The Emerging Challenges for the World of Education:
That Was Then – This Is Now. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student
Research, 7 (Spring)
Jedrys. J., Butler, N.L. Tanner, T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Dissertation Summation: Application of Selected Geophysical Methods in Facies Differentiation on Upper Jurassic Sediments in the
Cracow--Czestochowa Upland. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
7 (Spring)
Butler, N.L. Tanner, T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Do Polish Higher Institution Learners Prefer to Learn How to Speak English from a Native Speaker Rather than from a Non-Native Instructor: A Snapshot Comment. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
7 (Spring)
Butler, N.L., Smith, S., Davidson, B.S., Tanner, T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Polish Post-Secondary Vocational Schools vs. Canadian Community Colleges: A Comparison of Information Accessibility and Accountability. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Butler, N.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Should Tuition Fees be required of Polish Higher School Students who Study Full-Time? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Butler, N.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Are Polish Higher School Students in Agreement with HIV/AIDS Education Awareness Programs in Polish Primary and Secondary Schools which Include Homosexual Practices? A Brief Note. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Trzaskus-Zak, inz Beata, Buter, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., & Griffith, K.G. (2008) A Method of
Designation of Marginal Volumes of Economical Factors on a Two-Part Sale Price in the
Gas Distribution Industry. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
7 (Spring)
Kuklina, S.S., butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A. & Griffith, K.G. (2008) Learning Tolls for Overcoming Difficulties in Structuring Cooperative Activities in EFL Classrooms.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., Hines III, M, & Griffith, K.G. (2008) International Education:
Are Polish Higher School Learners Studying Spanish So That They Can Secure Employment
in Spain? A Brief Commentary. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
Butler, N.L., Davidson, B.S., Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G. (2008) International Education:
Do Polish Higher School Students Prefer Speaking in Person, Listening, Reading or Writing
During Spanish Classes? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
7 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED500292)
Brady, E.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Targeting Reading Fluency for ESL Students: A research based and practical application. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED500036)
Finch, J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2008) Unmarried Couples with Children. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 7 (Spring)
2007
Herrington, David E., Kritsonis, William A., Proctor, Kathleen Kidd & Garza-Brown,
Guadalupe (2007 Fall). Campus Level Grant Writing: Leveraging Teacher Talent to Access
External Funding. Journal of Border Educational Research 6(1).
Osterholm, K., Nash, W.R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Effects of Labeling Students
Learning Disabled”: Emergent Themes in the Research Literature 1970 Through 2000.
National Journal: FOCUS on Colleges, Universities, and Schools, 1(1)
Osterholm, K., Horn, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) College Professors as Potential Victims
Of Stalking: Awareness and Prevention: National Implications. National Journal: FOCUS
On Colleges, Universities, and Schools, 1(1)
Williams, M.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Implications: Why HBCU Presidents
Need Entrepreneurial Focus. National Journal: FOCUS On Colleges, Universities, and
Schools, 1(1)
Belshaw, S.H., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Implications in Juvenile Justice: The
Influence of Juvenile Mentoring Programs On At-Risk Youth. The International Child Care
Network CYC-Online, Issue 106 - Online, 106, November.
Obo, F.E., Joshua, M.T., Kritsonis,W.A., & Marshall, R.L. (2007). Some Student-Personal Variables as Predictors of Mathematics Achievement in Secondary Schools in Central Cross River State, Nigeria. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal 24(2)
Hart, K.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). The Influence of Parenting Style on Psychosocial Adjustment. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 24(2)
Joshua, M.T., Ubi, I.O., Kritsonis, W.A., & Marshall, R.L. (2007). Gender, Personality and Neurotic Factors in Mathematics Achievement among Secondary School Students in Calabar, Nigeria. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 20(2)
Pomykal, D.F., Hopper, P.F., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Impact: Creating Teacher
Leaders Through the Use of Problem-Based Learning. National FORUM of Applied
Educational Research Journal, 20(3)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Banning Cell Phones in Public Schools: Analyzing
A National School and Community Relations Problem. National FORUM of Educational
Administration and Supervision Journal, 24(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED497423)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National School Debate: Banning Cell Phones on
Public School Campuses in America. National FORUM of Educational Administration
and Supervision Journal, 25(4)
Wilson, M.A., & Kritsonis (2007) Melody Wilson’s Theoretical Framework Model on the
Effectiveness of Pre-Kindergarten Montessori Programs on Preparedness of Children for
Kindergarten. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 17(3)
Henderson, II, F.T., Rouce, S.D., Wawrykow, G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Impact:
Eugenics and Its Societal Implications. National FORUM of Multicultural Issues Journal, 4(2)
Henderson, N., Wood, J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Muslins in America. National FORUM of Multicultural Issues Journal, 4(2)
Jacobs, K.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Strategies for Educational Leaders to Implement Postmodern Thinking in Public Education in the United States of America. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 25(4)
Herrington, D.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Serendipitous Findings of A School-University Collaboration: A Case Study with National Implications for Supporting Novice Teachers. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 17(3)
Townsell, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Who in the World is Ayn Rand? Doctoral FORUM-
National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 4(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED49467)
Watkins, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Atlas Shrugged by Ayn Rand: A Comparative and Epistemological Philosophical Perspective Based on the Theoretical Framework of the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning by William Allan Kritsonis, PhD. Doctoral FORUM-National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 4(1)
Henderson, III, F.T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Graduation Rates at Historically Black Colleges
and Universities: A Review of the Literature. Doctoral FORUM-National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 4(1)
Wakins, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Atlas Shrugged by Any Rand: A Comparative and
Epistemological Philosophical Perspective Based on the theoretical Framework of the
Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning by William Allan Kritsonis, PhD.
Doctoral FORUM-National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 4(1)
Anthony, T.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). A Mixed Methods Assessment of the Effectiveness of Strategic EMentoring in Improving the Self-Efficacy and Persistence (or retention) of Alternatively Certified Novice Teachers within an Inner City School District. Doctoral FORUM-National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 4(1) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED494448)
Patton, M.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). Great Minds Think Differently: Sustaining a System of Thinking. Doctoral FORUM-National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 4(1) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED494511)
Skinner, D.A. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). When to be Selfish: Objectivism at its Best. Doctoral FORUM-National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 4(1)
Savoy, E. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). National Implications: Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning as an Ethical Decision-Making Process to Improve Academic Achievement-Ten Recommendations. Doctoral FORUM-National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 4(1)
Watkins, D. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). Developing a Curriculum for At-Risk and Low Performing High School Students: Teaching Shakespeare to At-Risk Students Utilizing Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. Doctoral FORUM-National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 4(1)
Williams, M.G. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). National Implications: Why HBCU Presidents Need Entrepreneurial Focus. National Journal: FOCUS on Colleges, Universities, and Schools, 1(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2007). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 24(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2007). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 24(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2007). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 24(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2007). FOREWORD. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 20(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2007). FOREWORD. National FORUM Teacher Education Journal, 17(1 & 2)
Kritsonis, W. (2007). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 10(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2007). On-Line Scholarly Electric Journal Division, National FORUM Journals. Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
Recent International
Smith, C., Butler, N.L., Hughes, T.A., Herrington, D., & Kritsonis, W.A (2007).
TECHNOLINGUA, Cracow, Poland. June 25-26, 2007 – AGH University of Science and Technology. Paper presentation: Native vs. Nonnative English Teachers in Polish Schools: Personal Reflections
Smith, C., Butler, N.L., Hughes, T.A., Herrington, D., & Kritsonis, W.A (2007).
Conference on Problems in Language, Teaching, Vyatka State University of the Humanities, Kirov, Russia, February 14-15 2007. Three papers accepted and published: 1) Native and Non-Native Teachers of English in Polish Schools – Personal Reflections: International Implications, 2) Observations on Native vs. Nonnative EFL Teachers in Poland, 3) The Role of Communication Context, Corpus-Based Grammar, and Scaffolded Interaction in ESL/EFL Instruction
Books by William Allan Kritsonis, PhD, Professor, PhD Program in Educational Leadership, PVAMU, Texas A&M University System
Kritsonis, W.A., & Mary Ann Springs (2008-09). Effective Teaching in the Elementary School. Murrieta, CA: The Alexis Group.
Kritsonis, W.A., Griffith, K.G., Bahrim, C., Marshall, R.L., Herrington, D., Hughes, T.A., & Brown, V.E. (2007). Practical Applications of Educational Research and Basic Statistics. Houston,TX: National FORUM Press
Kritsonis, W. (2007) Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. Published in
cooperation with financial support of Visiting Lecturers, Oxford Round Table (2005),
Oriel College in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England. Distributed by National
FORUM Journals
Person, O. & Kritsonis, W. (2006) A Brief Analysis of the Historical Development of Higher
Education for African Americans. Houston, TX: National Forum Press
Kritsonis, W. (2005) Advanced Applications of Educational Research and Statistics
(Preliminary Edition) Ashland, OH: BookMasters, Inc.
Kritsonis, W. (2002) William Kritsonis, PhD on Schooling: Historical and Philosophical
Events and Milestones. Ashland, OH: BookMasters, Inc.
(2nd Edition In Progress)
Kritsonis, W. (2000) School Discipline: The Art of Survival (3rd Edition)
Ashland, OH: BookMasters, Inc. (4th Edition In Progress)
Kritsonis, W. (1994) Education American Style (1st Edition)
Ashland, OH: BookMasters, Inc. (1st Edition)
Kritsonis, W. & J. Brown (1993) School Discipline: The Art of Survival (2nd Edition)
Kritsonis, W. & S. Adams (1987) School Discipline: The Art of Survival (1st Edition)
Baton Rouge, LA: LAND and LAND Publishing Division
Kritsonis, W. & D.F. DeMoulin (1996) Philosophies of Education (1st Edition)
Ashland, OH: BookMasters, Inc. (2nd Edition In Progress)
Kritsonis, W. (1989) How to Improve Your Effectiveness as an Elementary School Teacher
(2nd Edition) Alexandria, LA: National Forum Books
Kritsonis, W. (1973) John Wesley’s Contribution to Education. New York, NY
Kritsonis, W. (1972) How to Improve Your Effectiveness as an Elementary School Teacher
Seattle, WA: Ballard Publishing Company
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor, PhD Program in Educational Leadership, PVAMU,
Texas A&M University
PROFESSIONAL REFERENCES
Dr. Charles M. Achilles, Professor, Seton Hall University, 53 Snug Harbor, Geneva, NY.
315-789-2399; 315-789-9332; 973-313-6334’ plato9936@yahoo.com plato936@rochester.rr.com
Dr. Vincent a. Anfara, Jr., Professor, The University of Tennessee at Knoxville, Educational Administration and Policy, A321 Clayton Complex, Knoxville, TN 37996-3430
865-974-4985; 504-957-4109; vanfara@utk.edu
Dr. Charles T. Araki, Professor Emeritus, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 3017 Kaloaluiki Street, Honolulu, HI 96822- 808-956-7704
Dr. Joe Blackbourn, Associate Professor, The University of Mississippi, School of Education, Curriculum and Instruction, University, MS 38677 662-234-3092; 662-832-0731; 662-232-7588; jmb@olemiss.edu
Dr. Richard Blackbourn, Dean, College of Education, Mississippi State University, Box 9710, Miss State, MS 39762 662-325-3717; 662-325-8784 Fax; rlb277@misstate.edu
Dr. Kathleen M. Brown, Head, Department of Educational Leadership, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 103B Peabody Hall, CB#3500, School of Education, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-#3500 919-843-8166; 919-843-4572 Fax; BrownK@mail.unc.edu
Dr. Gerald Calais, Professor, McNeese State University, Department of Teacher Education,
Burton College of Education, Lake Charles, LA 70609 337-475-5419; gcalais@mail.mcneese.edu
Dr. Patti L. Chance, Professor, Department of Educational Administration and Higher Education, University of Nevada at Las Vegas, Box 453002, Las Vegas, NV 89154-3002 702-895-3491; 702-228-3791
Dr. Robert B. Cooter, Jr., Professor, Department of Instruction and Curriculum Leadership, College of Education, 400b Ball Hall, The University of Memphis, Memphis TN 38152-3570
901-678-5938; 901-678-3881 Fax; rcooter@memphis,edu
Dr. John Cotsakos, Associate Professor, California State University at Sacramento, Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, College of Education, 6000 J. Street, Sacramento, CA 95819-6079 916-933-7134; 916-275-5887; 916-933-7681 Fax; cbe@sbcglobal.net
Dr. Barry S. Davidson, Troy University, Department of Psychology, Counseling and Foundations of Education, 10 McCartha Hall, Troy, AL 36082 561-762-8134; 334-670-5682; bdaviso@troy.edu
Dr. Ben C. DeSpain, Head, Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling, PhD Program in Educational Leadership, Prairie View A&M University/Member of the Texas A&M University System, The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education, PO 519, Prairie View, TX 77446 270-339-8552;
Dr. Feng S. Din, Professor, Department of Education, University of Virginia’s College of Wise,
1 College Avenue, Wise, VA 24293 540-328-4412 fsd2e@uvawise.edu
Dr. Rita Dunn, Professor and Director, Learning Styles Network, St. John’s University, Division of Instructional Leadership, Utopia Parkways, Jamaica, NY 11439 803-642-4390
Dr. Fenwick W. English, R. Wendell Eaves Distinguished Professor of Educational Leadership, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Department of Educational Leadership, Peabody Hall – CB #3500, School of Education, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3500 Cell: 919-451-1493; 919-843-4572; fenglish@mail.edu fenglish@attglobal.net
Mr. Joe Feucht, Purchasing Supervisor, Calcasieu Parish School Board, 1724 Kirkman Street, Lake Charles, LA 70602-0800 337-794-4155
Dr. Larry E. Frase, Professor Emeritus, San Diego State University, 2274 Ft. Stockton Drive, San Diego, CA 92103 619-298-9391
Dr. Jeanne Gerlach, Associate Vice President for K-16 Initiatives & Dean of the College of Education, University of Texas at Arlington, Box 19227, 701 S. College Street, Arlington, TX 76019 817-272-5476; 817-272-7453 Fax; gerlach@uta.edu
Dr. Clement Glenn, Associate Professor and Vice President for Student Services, Prairie View A&M University, Box 519, Prairie View, TX 77446 936-825-6300; ceglenn@pvamu.edu
Dr. Kimberly Grantham Griffith, Associate Professor and Editor, The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, Lamar University, Department of Professional Pedagogy, College of Education and Human Development, PO Box 10034, Beaumont, TX 77710 409-893-5590; 409-832-6769; 409-880-8684; babybirdcardinal@aol.com - griffithkg@hal.lamar.edu
Dr. Richard Hartnett, Chair, Educational Leadership Studies, West Virginia University, College of Education, 608 Allen Hall, Morgantown, WV 26506 304-293-3707 Richard.Hartnett@mail.edu
Dr. David E. Herrington, Associate Professor and Director of the Principal’s Center,
Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling, Prairie View A&M University/Member of the Texas A&M University System, Box 519, Prairie View, TX 77446 979-293-0613; davidherrington111@hotmail.com
Dr. Teresa Ann Hughes, Results in Education, 19307 Solon Springs Court, Tomball, TX 77375
281-290-6518; 281-433-0198; tannh3@hotmail.com
(First graduate in PhD Program in Educational Leadership at Prairie View A&M University/Member of the Texas A&M University System, Fall 2006
Dr. G. Peter Ienatsch, Dean Emeritus, College of Education, University of Texas of the Permian Basin, 100 West Rainbow Drive, Ruidoso, NM 88345
Dr. Donald F. DeMoulin, Professor, Doctoral Program, Argosy University – Atlanta, 980 Hammond Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30328 713-697-8776; Demoulin5853@yahoo.com
Dr. Dan L. King, Vice President of Academic Affairs, Rhode Island College, 600 Mt. Pleasant Avenue, Providence, RI 62908 401-456-8003; dking@ric.edu
Dr. Lloyd Kinnison, Professor, Texas Woman’s University, College of Education, Denton, TX 76204-5769 940-381-0520; 940-898-2270; lkinnison@twu.edu
Dr. Lloyd Korhonen, Director, Center for Distance Learning Research, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-1588 409-862-7125; 409-862-7127
Dr. James D. Laub, Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum and Instruction, Poteet Independent School District, P.O. Box 138, Poteet, TX 78065 432-254-8705 Cell; 432-686-0003 Work; jlaub@macharter.org; jameslaubphd@peoplepc.com
Dr. Angus MacNeil, Professor, University of Houston, 15421 Stonehill Drive, Houston, TX 77062 281-286-6731; 713-743-5038; amacneil@uh.edu
Dr. Robert L. Marshall, Professor, Doctoral Program, Department of Educational Leadership, Western Illinois University, 1 University Circle, Horrabin Hall 81, Macomb, IL 61455 Dr. Marshall is Senior National Editor for National FORUM Journals
979-218-6872 rlmarshall@wiu.edu
Dr. M. Paul Mehta, Professor and Dean (Retired), Prairie View A&M University/Member of the Texas A&M University System, The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education, Box 519, Prairie View, TX 77446 Cell: 281-770-7659; Home: 281-855-8633; mpmehta@pvamu.edu
Dr. Allen A. Mori, Provost, California State University, Dominguez Hills, 1000 E. Victoria Street, Carson, CA 90747 310-243-3307; amori@csudh.edu - acadaffairs@csudh.edu
Dr. Lautrice Nickson, Assistant Principal, Conroe Independent School District, 2422 Coachlight, Conroe, TX 77384 936-321-7089; 936-521-5061 - mrsnickson@hotmail.com
Dr. William J. O’Neill, Professor Emeritus, Iowa Wesleyan College, 802 East Pine Place, Mt. Pleasant, IA 52641 319-986-2190; oneillmp@mchsi.com
Dr. Rosemary Papa, Del & Jewel Lewis Endowed Chair for Learner Centered Leadership, Northern Arizona University, College of Education, PO Box 5774, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5774
916-832-1336; 928-523-8741 Rosemary.Papa@nau.edu
Dr. Arthur L. Petterway, Assistant Principal, Houston Independent School District. Home Address: 5300 N. Braeswood, Houston, TX 77096 832-693-2809; 713-748-8303; 713-498-8667
Dr. Thomas A. Rakes, Chancellor, The University of Tennessee at Martin, Administration Building, Office of the Chancellor, Martin, TN 38238 881-587-7010; 731-587-9010; rakes@utm.edu
Dr. Bill Reaves, CREATE, 3232 College Park Drive, Suite 303, The Woodlands, TX 77384
www.createtx.com - 281-893-6918; 936-273-7661; wreaves@uamu.edu
Dr. Louis Reed, (Former Superintendent Port Arthur I.S.D., Port Arthur, TX)
3031 13th Street, Port Arthur, TX 77642 409-718-0812
Dr. Roselia A. Salinas, Director of Human Resources, Clear Creek I.S.D.. 2425 E. Main Street, League City, TX 77573 - 713-572-7928; rosesalinas1@hotmail.com; rsalinas@ccisd.net
Rhodena Townsell, Principal, Madisonville Elementary, Madisonville Consolidated Independent School District, PO Box 879, Madisonville, TX 77864 903-536-3414; 936-348-1877; townsell@windstream.net - rbrooksmadisonvillecisd.org
Dr. Thomas Valesky, Professor, Florida Gulf Coast University, 19501 Treeline Avenue South, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565 941-590-7793; 941-432-5559; 941-948-0334 Fax
Dr. James Van Patten, Professor Emeritus, University of Arkansas at Fayetteville, 434 Hawthorne Street, Fayeteville, AR 72701 516-278-6572
Monica G. Williams, Director of Development, Rice University, Office of Development, MS81, P.O. Box 1892, Houston, TX 77251-1892; Cell 832-498-8733; Direct 717-348-4332; Fax 713-348-5166; Mobile: 832-498-8733 monica.williams@rice.edu
Dr. Ben Wilson, Jr., Professor Emeritus, Sul Ross State University/Rio Grande College, HC 34 Box 1016, Uvalde, TX 78801 830-278-7445 nanw@hilconet.com
Dr. James A. Wood, Professor, Sul Ross State University/Rio Grande College, 400 Sul Ross Drive, Uvalde, TX 78801 830-279-3033; jawood@sulross.edu
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
2004 – Present PROFESSOR (Tenured)
Prairie View A&M University
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View, Texas 77446
(Member of the Texas A&M University System)
DISTINGUISHED ALUMNUS (2004)
Central Washington University
College of Education and Professional Studies
Ellensburg, Washington
VISITING LECTURER (2005)
Oxford Round Table
Oriel College in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Taught the Inaugural class in the newly established Doctor of Philosophy
Program in the Educational Leadership (Fall, 2004). Dissertation Chair of
first recipient of PhD. Student graduated in fall, 2006.
PhD Courses Taught at PVAMU (Doctoral Level)
EDUL 7003 Fundamental Components of Strategic Thinking
EDUL 7033 Dynamics of Leadership
EDUL 7043 Organizational Development and Change
EDUL 7063 Philosophy of Leadership
EDUL 7403 School Law for Administrators
EDUL 7083 Internship – Superintendent/Principal/Higher Education
EDUL 7253 Ethical Decision Making
EDUL 7263 Critical Issues in Educational Leadership
EDUL 7273 Human Resources Management
EDUL 7333 Grant Writing
EDUL 8003 Dissertation
Other Graduate Level Courses Taught at PVAMU (Master’s Level)
ADMIN 5513 Superintendent Internship
ADMN 5003 Fundamentals of School Administration
ADMN 5013 Theory, Practice and Research
ADMN 5033 School Business Management
ADMN 5043 The School Principalship
ADMN 5053 Administration of Special Programs
ADMN 5083 Special Topics in Educational Administration
ADMN 5153 Research
CNSL 5163 Research
Member, (Elected by the Faculty) Promotion and Tenure Committee, Prairie View A&M University, Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling, The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education, Member of the Texas A&M University System, Prairie View, TX. 2004 – Present
Member, (Appointed by the Dean of The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education) College of Education Advisory Committee on Post-Tenure Review, Prairie View A&M University, The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education, Member of the Texas A&M University System, Prairie View, TX.. 2006 – Present
Certification of Completion – The NIH Office of Human Subjects Research certifies that William Kritsonis successfully completed the National Institutes of Health Web-based training course “Protecting Human Research Participants”. Date: 03/09/2008
Certification Number: 5765.
Faculty Mentor to New PhD Doctoral Faculty, 2007 – Present - Dr. Tyrone Tanner.
Member, (Appointed by the Dean of The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education) Holmes Partnership Council, Prairie View A&M University, The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education, Member of the Texas A&M University System, Prairie View, TX. 2006 – Present
Member, (Appointed by the Dean of The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education) Task Force
On Grants and External Funding, Prairie View A&M University, The Whitlowe R. Green
College of Education, Member of the Texas A&M University System, Prairie View, TX. 2004-Present
Since joining the doctoral faculty of PVAMU, Dr. Kritsonis has have helped colleagues publish articles at the national and international levels in refereed, peer-reviewed, juried, academic professional journals. Over 300 indexed in ERIC. Teach courses in the superintendent, principal and human resources certification and preparation programs.
William Allan Kritsonis,PhD
National Refereed Publications
2005
Marshall, R., & Kritsonis, W. (2005). School Finance Equity and Adequacy. In Fenwick
W. English (Eds.) Sage Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Marshall, R., & Kritsonis, W. (2005). Rural and Small Schools. In Fenwick W. English
(Eds.) Sage Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Kritsonis, W., (2005). Schwarzenegger Needs Schooling in Precedents.
EDUCATION WEEK, Vol. 25, No. 13, November 20, 2005, Page 39
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD: Teaching Latino Students: Effective Strategies for
Educating America’s Minorities: Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press
Kritsonis, W. (2005). William J. Slotnik’s Commentary “Mission Possible: Tying Earning
To Learning” EDUCATION WEEK, Volume 25, Issue 08, October 19, 2005, Page 35
Butler, L., Pachocinski, R., Davidson, B., Kritsonis, W., Van Patten, J., Borman, K.,
Johanningmeirer, E., Orlosfsky, M., & Marshall, R. (2006). Polish Post-Secondary
Vocational Schools and Canadian Community Colleges: International Perspectives.
International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity 8(1)
(ERIC Documentation Reproduction Services No ED492983)
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD: Developing Educational Leadership on a National Level.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 22(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD: Developing Educational Leadership on a National Level.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 22(2)
Note: This issue featured PhD Students in Educational Leadership from Prairie View A&M
University – Member of the Texas A&M University System.
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD: Development of Educational Leadership Nationally.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 22(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD: Educational Administration: A National Perspective.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 18(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD: How Technology Impacts Education Nationally.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 18(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD: National Insights: Educational Aspects and the
Quest for Highly Qualified Teachers. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal,
15(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD: National Insights: Educational Aspects for Youth Today.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 15(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2005). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic
Intellectual Diversity, 8(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2005). On-Line Scholarly Electronic Journal Division, National FORUM
Journals – Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
Mentored Research – 2006
Professor William Allan Kritsonis,
PVAMU, Texas A&M University System
Dr. Kritsonis
Mentoring and Teaching Doctoral Students and Colleagues to Write for Professional Publication - Refereed Articles Published
Edgerson, D., & Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006). The Critical Role of the
Teacher-Principal Relationship in the Improvement of Student Achievement in Public
Schools of the United States. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student
Research, 3 (Spring)
Petterway, A., & Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006). The Impact of High Stakes
Testing on the Academic Achievement of English Language Learners in Texas Public
Education: National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of
Student Research, 3(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491981)
Hughes, T., & Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006). The Importance of Learning
Community Ideology in the Transformation of Public Schools in the United States.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 3(Spring)
Salinas, R., & Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006). Teacher Quality as a Predictor
of Student Achievement in Urban Schools: A National Focus. The Lamar
University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 3(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491993)
Nickson, L., & Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006). Retaining Special Education
Teachers in Public Education in the United States: A National Crisis. The Lamar
University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 3(Spring)
Parsons, G., Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006). Successful African American Males
in Post-Secondary Education: An Examination of Personal Strategies, Attitudes,
and Behaviors. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
3(Spring)
Adams, C., Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006). Second School Crisis Management
Preparedness in American Public Schools. The Lamar University Electronic
Journal of Student Research, 3(Spring)
Anderson, A., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). A National Perspective: An Exploration of the Influence
of Principals on School Culture. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student
Research, 3(Spring)
Hughes, T., Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006). A National Perspective for Cultivating
Working Relations Between Educational Researchers and Institutional Review Board
Members. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491999)
Jacobs, K., Kritsonis, W. (2006) National Agenda: Ten Suggestions to Incorporate the Realms of
Meaning as a Decision Making Process to Improve Student Achievement in the United States.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492179)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Immigration and Student Success Communication:
Journey as a Learning Organization. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student
Research, 3(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492118)
Ellison, E., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Considerations: How to Implement the Realms of
Meaning as a Decision Making Process to Improve Student Achievement: Ten
Recommendations. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
3(Spring)
Love, A., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Impact: Change Agents Understand Directional
Changes. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 3(Spring)
Ellison, E., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Imperatives: Restructuring the Configuration of
Tutoring Programs and Transforming Tutoring Groups into Achievement Groups.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 3(Spring)
Branch, R., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Insight: Pragmatism: Proof is in the Results.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 3(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499770)
Smith, Y., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Insight: Yolanda E. Smith’s Philosophy of
Education. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 3(Spring)
Anthony, T., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Outlook: An Epistemological Approach to
Educational Philosophy. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
3(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492240)
Nickerson, G. & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Viewpoint: The Development of a Complete
Person Using a “Realms of Meaning” Styled Curriculum. The Lamar University
Electronic Journal of Student Research, 3(Spring)
Renfro, J. & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Vision: The Educational Philosophy of
Jacqueline McNeir Refro. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
3(Spring)
Dr. Kritsonis: Major Professor for Completed Graduate Research Thesis, Field Studies and/or Projects: Education Specialist Degree
Education Specialist Degree
McNeese State University, Department of Educational Leadership and Instructional Technology, Burton College of Education (74)
2004
Julie Anne Ambros THE EFFECTS OF CHARACTER EDUCATION ON 8TH GRADE STUDENTS’ DEVELOPMENT IN CALCASIEU PARISH SCHOOLS
Chad Aucoin THE PERCEPTIONS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AS VIEWED BY THE STUDENT BODY OF STARKS HIGH SCHOOL
Rebecca Chapman A STUDY OF HATHAWAY HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF SELECTED FACTORS SINCE THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE DISCIPLINE REFERRAL POLICY
Karla Desormeaux THE EFFECTS OF STANDARDS-BASED MATHEMATICS CURRICULUMS ON STUDENT MATHEMATICAL ACHIEVEMENT
Pamela I. Dequeant THE EFFECTS OF STAKEHOLDERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND OF THE
& Julie P. Miers EFFECTIVENESS OF THE FOUR-DAY SCHOOL WEEK ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT, BEHAVIOR, AND ATTENDANCE
Christie Guidry THE EFFECTS OF PRE-KINDERGARTEN ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF FIRST GRADE AND THIRD GRADE STUDENTS
Jessica R. Hickman- SCHOOL UNIFORMS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS: ADVANTAGES AND
Zaunbrecher DISADVANTAGES
Dayna Hoffpauir A STUDY ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS USING THE COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION IN JEFFERSON DAVIS PARISH
James Hughes PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT POLICIES AND PROCEDURES IN COMPLEX ORGANIZATIONS
Velma Hypolite & THE EFFECTS OF OUT-OF-ZONE PLACEMENT ON ACADEMIC
Charlotte McCallum PROGRESS OF STUDENTS IN FOUR MIDDLE SCHOOLS OF THE CALCASIEU PARISH SCHOOL SYSTEM
Brenda Joubert THE EFFECTS OF THE FOUR-DAY SCHOOL WEEK ON TEACHER AND STUDENT ATTENDANCE
Loreete LaVergne PUBLIC SCHOOL EDUCATION COMPARED TO ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL EDUCATION AS MEASURED BY THE LOUISIANA EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT PROGRAM (LEAP) TEST
Audrette S. Metoyer THE EFFECTS OF CREATING POSITIVE READING ATTITUDES THROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF COMPUTERIZED MANAGEMENT PROGRAM “STAR”
Vicki Perkins THE EFFECTS OF BLOCK SCHEDULING ON STUDENTS ATTENDANCE AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AT DEQUENCY MIDDLE SCHOOL
Sharon Lynn THE EFFECTS OF ADDED AMERICAN HISTORY QUESTIONS IN
Phenice-Richard THE SEVENTH GRADE LOUISIANA HISTORY CLASS ON THE IOWA TESTS OF BASIC SKILLS
Daniel Prather THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY AND COMPUTER AIDED INSTRUCTION ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE AT CHURCH POINT HIGH SCHOOL
Carolyn Smith MATHEMATICALLY PROFICIENT-TEACHING AND LEARNING
Amy L. Veuleman A STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PLAN IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SETTING
Mentored Research - 2007
Dr. Kritsonis
Mentoring and Teaching Doctoral Students and Colleagues to Write for Professional Publication - Refereed Articles Published
Berkins, C.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Curriculum Leadership: Curriculum for the At-Risk Student. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED498643)
Nazemzadeh, N., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Postmodernism, Higher Education, and Economics: A Different View. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Nazemzadeh, N., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Economics and the Six Realms of Meaning. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Renfro, J.M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Organization Leadership 101: The Importance pf Identifying and Implementing Character Trait Assessments that Move Educational Leaders to Levels of Excellence. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Cheng-Chieh, L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Five Instructional Strategies for ESL Leaders: Improving ESL Learning through Cultural Activities. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Wawrzyniak, K., Butler, N.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Brief Summary of a Doctoral Dissertation in Geophysics. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Cheng-Chieh, L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) CALL Application Electronic Portfolio in the Second Language Classroom. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Berkins, C.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Curriculum Leadership: New Trends and Career and Technical Education. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED498616)
Nickerson G.T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) An Investigation of How the Factors of Time on Task and Study Habits Contribute or Inhibit the Academic Success of Minority Students. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Nazemzadeh, N., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Ayn Rand: The Nonfiction Work. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Maintaining Ethical Leadership and High “Diversity” Standards in Higher Education: A National Issue in Educational Leadership. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Thomas, K., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) What Will It Take to Have an Effective Campusss? National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Norfleet, S., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Leadership Strategies for Closing the Achievement Gap.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Sands, A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Three Factors Contributing to African American Males Being Placed into Special Education Classes: National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Muschalek, B., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Insight: 5 Strategies to Reach and Teach at-Risk Students. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Watkins, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Focus: Enhancing Student Achievement and Teacher Efficacy Through Effective Grant Writing and Creative Instructional Programming.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Mroz, L., Butler, N.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) A Brief Note about the Functions of Discourse Markers in Discourse Coherence. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Butler, N.L., Burbelko, A., Rajzer, I., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) International Education Report: AGH University of Science and Technology, Cracow, Poland: Noteworthy Doctoral Recipients. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Jacobs, K.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Utilizing Culture to Improve Communication and School Involvement with Parents from Diverse Backgrounds as a Means to Improve Student Achievements Levels in the United States: A National Focus. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Firebaugh, K.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Epidemic: Five Benefits of Implementing the CATCH Program into a Physical Education Curriculum in Helping Fight Childhood Obesity.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Fall)
Jacobs, K.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) An Analysis of Teacher and Student Absenteeism in Urban Schools: What the Research Says and Recommendations for Educational Leaders. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Fall)
Butler, N.L., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) The School’s Concern with Grades and the
Societal Consequences. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED497506)
Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., & Griffith, K. (2007) The School As An Organization and Social
Institution: A Brief Note. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
4(Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495206)
Butler, N.L., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) International Impact: Agreement or Non-
Agreement: Are Polish Higher School Students in Agreement with a Law that Punishes
People for Encouraging Homosexuality in Polish Primary and Secondary Schools?
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED497437)
Butler, N.L., Davidson, B.S., Pachocinski, R., Griffith, K.G., Kritsonis, W.A. (2007)
International Perspectives: Polish Post-Secondary Vocational Schools: A Comparison Using An Information Technology Conceptual Model. The Lamar University Electronic Journal Student Research, 4 (Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED497437)
Rajzer, I., Griffith, K.G., Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Investigations into the Use of Fibrous Carbon-
Based Materials as Scaffold for Tissue Engineering by Izabella Rajzer. The Lamar
University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
Doucet, G., Grant, L.E., Brown, V.E., Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Update: Zero
Tolerance School Disciplinary Policy and Criminology Theory. The Lamar University
Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer 2007)
Butler, N.L., Griffith, K.G., Kritsonis, W.A. Non-formal Education in Poland and Canada –
Compared: A Brief Commentary. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student
Research, 4 (Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED497368)
Kritsonis, W.A., & Griffith, K.G. (2007) On Writing Well for Professional Publication in
National Refereed Journals in Education. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of
Student Research, 4 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Davidson, B.S., Pachocinski, R., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007)
Polish Post-Secondary Vocational Schools and Canadian Community Colleges: A
Comparison using the School as an Organization and Social Institution as a Conceptual
Framework. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED497362)
Butler, N.L., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Student Ratings of Faculty Performance
In Polish Higher Schools: A Brief Note. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of
Student Research, 4 (Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED497453)
Wells, W.D., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) The Achievement Gap between
African-American and Non-minority Students: How Can We Close the Gap?
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) The Use of Positive Youth Development
Constructs in Career Development Programs for Incarcerated Juvenile Offenders.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
Butler, N.L., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) The Virtual University: A Brief Note.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
Townsell, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) A National Look at Postmodernism’s Pros and Cons in
Educational Leadership. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
4 (Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED497693)
Skinner, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Bring You Best Self to an Interview. The Lamar
University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (Summer)
Butcher, J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Human Resource Management: Managerial Efficacy in
Recruiting and Retaining Teachers – National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer) (ERIC Documentation Reproduction Service No ED497357)
Williams, L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Leaders We Have a Problem! It is Teacher Retention…What Can We Do About It? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED497436)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Agenda: Development of Best Practices in Human
Resources using Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning as the Framework.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED497363)
Williams, M.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Focus on Postmodernism in Higher
Education. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
Evans, L.M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Impact: The Role of Human Resources
Management and Leadership Development in Education and Their Effectiveness on Teacher
Retention. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
Duong, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Implications: Characteristics of Effective
Leadership in K-12. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4
(Summer)
Williams, M.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Implications: Examining Motivational
Factors among Employees in Higher Education. The Lamar University Electronic Journal
of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
Holloway, F.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Implications: That Was Then, This is Now.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
Melvin, S., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Implications: Those Who Care, Teach – Strategies
That Promote the Recruitment and Retention of Classroom Teachers. The Lamar University
Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
Watkins, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Implications: Watkins/Kritsonis Guide to Human Resources Management Utilizing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
Melvin, S., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Phenomenon – Fenwick English’s Postmodernism
Goes to Hollywood. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4
(Summer)
Collins, C.J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Viewpoint: How to Implement the Ways of
Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning as an Ethical Decision Making Process for
Counselors to Improve Student Achievement. The Lamar University Electronic Journal
of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
White, P.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) The Essence of Effective Administrative Leadership:
National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
4 (Summer)
Smith, C., Butler, N.L., Hughes, T.A., Herrington, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Observations
On Native vs. Non-native EFL Teachers in Poland. The Lamar University Electronic Journal
of Student Research, 4(Summer)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED495201)
Evans, L.M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) The Moral Project – The Effects of Benjamin Franklin’s
Thirteen Virtues within My Life. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student
Research, 4 (Summer)
Roos, L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) The Use of Positive Youth Development Constructs in
Career Development Programs for Incarcerated Juvenile Offenders. The Lamar University
Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Summer)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (20077) New Strategies for Educational Leaders to Implement
Postmodern Thinking in Public Education in the United States of America: Creating a
National Change Strategy. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction No.ED497435)
Jacobs, K., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Strategies for Implementing Postmodern Thinking ofr
Improving Secondary Education in Public Education in the United States of America:
National Impact. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495312)
Krukiewicz-Gacek, A., Griffith, K., Skrynicka-Knapczyk, D., Butler, N.L., & Kritsonis, W.A.
(2007) Should We Teach English for Work Purposes to Undergraduates at Polish Higher
Schools? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495376)
Hughes, T.A., Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, David (2007) Primary and Secondary
Education in Canada and Poland Compared: International Implications. The Lamar
University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495075)
Butler, N.D., Davidson, B.S., Mroz, L., Brown, V., Griffith, K., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007)
Do Polish High School Students Prefer Speaking in Person, Listening, Reading or Writing
During EFL Classes? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service NO.ED495075)
Smith, C., Butler, N.L., Hughes, T.A., Herrington, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). Native vs Nonnative English Teachers in Polish Schools: Personal Reflections. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring) (ERIC Document Reproduction No ED495069)
Hughes, T.A., Hughes, J.T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). Brief Reflections on Atlas Shrugged by Ayn Rand: National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
Butler, N.L., Hughes, T.A., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) Native and Non-Native Teachers of English in Polish Schools-Personal Reflections: International Educational Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495206)
Hughes, T.A., Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. Cheating in Examinations in Two Polish Higher Education Schools. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring) (ERIC Documentation Reproduction Service No ED4955076)
Hughes, T.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) A Historical Perspective of National Educational Reform Efforts. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Hughes, T.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Professional Learning Communities and the Positive Effects on Student Achievement: A National Agenda for School Improvement. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Hughes, T.A., Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, M.A., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) Religious Education in Government-Run Primary and Secondary Schools in Poland and Canada (Ontario and Quebec) - An International Focus. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495110)
Laub, J.D. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) A National Perspective: Transforming Leadership in America’s Rural Public Schools. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Hughes, T.A., Butler, N.L., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) Education in Canada: A Lecture to the Polish Comparative Education Society. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Hughes, T.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) An Independent Publisher Online’s Highlighted Titles Book Awards and Recognition for Exceptional Teachers. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Anderson, A.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) The Perspectives of Ayn Rand on the Virtues of Selfishness (1964). The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Anderson, A.C. & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Postmodern Philosophical Thinking and Recommendations According to Fenwick English. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Anthony, T.D., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) Postmoderism and the Implications for Educational Leadership: National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495291)
Anthony, T.D., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) National Cry for Help: Psychological Issues as They Relate to Education; A Realistic Approach to Understanding and Coping with the African American Males. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495296)
Anthony, T.D., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) An Analysis of Human Resource Management: Involving Administrative Leadership as a Means to Practical Applications: National Focus. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495294)
Anthony, T.D., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) How to Implement the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning in Human Resource Management-Ten Recommendation: National Impact. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED495293)
Scott-Ferguson., B., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) Human Resource Management and Special Education Administrative Leadership. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Scott-Ferguson., B., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) The Development of Human Resource Management and School Board Relations: National Considerations. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Branch, R.M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Impact: Strategies for Successfully Implementing Postmodern Theory and Practice in Educational Leadership for Improving Schooling in the United States of America. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Gilliam, J.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Creative Strategies for Implementing Postmodernism Thinking for University Administrators to Improve Colleges and Universities in the United States: National Possibilities. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Jacobs, K.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Recommendations: Strategies for Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning for the Development of Professional Personnel. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495313)
Jacobs, K.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) An Analysis of the Objectivist Ethics in Educational Leadership Through Ayn Rand’s The Virtues of Selfishness (1964). The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495311)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Implications for Urban School Systems: Strategic Planning in the Human Resource Management Department in a Large Urban School District. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED497431)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) An Epistemological Analysis of Atlas Shrugged and The Virtues of Selfishness by Ayn Rand: The Ten Most Poignant Points: International Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Brown, D.R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) An Exploration of Ten Salient Ideas as Presented by Ayn Rand’s Atlas Shrugged Supported by Virtues of Selfishness. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Brown, D.R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Brown’s Model of Ethics: National Impact. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) National Implications: Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning for Improvement of Ethical Conduct. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495067)
Butcher, J.T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning for the Improvement of Ethical Conduct: Ten National Recommendations. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495205)
Sturgis, K.K., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) An Analysis of Ayn Rand’s Atlas Shrugged. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Williams, M.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Integrating the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning to Improve National Fundraising Objectives. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Butcher, J.T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) The Impact of Objectivism on Humankind National and International Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Williams, M.G., Herrington, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Oral History: A Viable Methodology for 21st Century Educational Administration Research: National Impact. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Perkins, T., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Ten Penetrating Ideas Presented in Ayn Rand’s Atlas Shrugged (1957) The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Demaris, M.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Residential Learning Communities on Historically Black College and University Campuses. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED495305)
Hart, K.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) The Stigma of Mental Illness: Exploring the Nature and Resolution of Stereotypical Conceptions. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Hughes, T.A., Kritsonis, W.A., & Kritsonis, M.A. (2007) Writing for Professional Publication.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Joshua, A.M., Joshua, M.T., Kritsonis, W.A., & Herrington, D. (2007) Assessment of the Depth of Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Possessed by Secondary School Students in Southern Cross River State, Nigeria. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Springs, M.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Improving Student Self-Concept Through Student Achievement. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Smith, C., Butler, N.L., & Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) The Role of Communication Context, Corpus-Based Grammar, and Scaffolded Interaction in ESL/EFL Instruction. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495290)
Krukiewica-Gacek, A., Griffith, K.G., Skrynicka-Knapczyk, D., Butler, N.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Should We Teach English for Work Purposes to Undergraduates at Polish Higher Schools? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Herrington, D., Griffith, K.G., Brown, V.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) “Mixed Methods” Research Designs. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
Smith, C., Butler, N.L., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Observations on Native vs. Nonnative EFL Teachers in Poland. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495201)
Webb, P., Kritsonis, W.A., & Griffith, K.G. (2007) Spare the Rod, Destroy the Child: Examining the Speculative Association of Corporal Punishment and Deviant Behavior among Youth: National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED496203)
Butler, N.L., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) International Implications: Are Polish
Higher Learners in Favour of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Being Taught in Primary
and Secondary Schools? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
4 (Spring)
Doucet, G., Herrington, D., Griffith, K.G., Brown, V.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007)
Zero Tolerance School Disciplinary Policy: National Implications for Criminology Theory,
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring 2007)
Asotska, J., Butler, N.L., Davidson, B.S., Griffith, K.G., Brown, V.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007)
Are Polish Primary School Pupils in Favour of Wearing Uniforms? Snapshot Comment.
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495988)
Butler, N.L., Davidson, B.S., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) International Update:
Are the Recent Reforms in Polish Education Making it harder for School Discipline to be
Maintained in Schools? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research,
4 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495956)
Nervis, III, J., Kritsonis, W.A., & Griffith, K.G. (2007) She Is My Teacher. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
Butler, N.L., Davidson, B.S., Griffith, K.G., Brown, V.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007)
Comparative International Education: Institutions of Higher Education in Poland and
Canadian Universities: A Comparison Using an Information Technology Conceptual
Framework. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495955)
Butler, N.L., Brown, V.E., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) Polish High School Learners: Are They Studying English To Secure Employment in Great Britain or Ireland?
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED496152)
Butler, N.L., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) An Ontological Update: Are Polish Higher
School Learners Consistent in Their Agreement with Cheating in Examinations Sessions?
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED496243)
Butler, N.L., Griffith, K.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2007) An International Perspective: The School
As an Organizational and Social Institution: Current Challenges. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4 (Spring)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED496245)
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Partial Listing of National and International Publication. Dr. Kritsonis teaches in the PhD Program in Educational Leadership at PVAMU, Texas A&M University System
2006
Jacobs, K.D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). How to Implement the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning in Human Resource Management: Ten Recommendations for Selecting Campus Administrators. Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED494799)
Webb, P., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Zero-Tolerance Policies and Youth: Protection or Profiling? Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493837)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). National Implications: Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning in Human Resource Management and Development. Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Hart, K.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Critical Analysis of an Original Writing on Social Learning Theory: Imitation of Film-Mediated Aggressive Models. Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Savoy, E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). National Implications: Implementing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning as an Ethical Decision-Making Process to Improve Academic Achievement-Ten Recommendations. Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Collins, C.J., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). National Viewpoint: The Importance of Hiring a Diverse Faculty. Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499556)
Watkins, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Developing a Curriculum for At-Risk and Low Performing High School Students: Teaching Shakespeare to At-Risk Students Through Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Skinner, D., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). How to Implement the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms Of Meaning as an Ethical Decision-Making Process to Improve Academic Achievement-Ten Recommendations. Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495079
Hart, K.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). A Critical Analysis of John B. Watson’s Original Writing: “Behaviorism as a Behaviorist Views It.” National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 20(3)
Webb, P., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Controlling Those Kids: Social Control and the Use of Pretrial Detention Among Youth in the United States of America: National Implications. Doctoral FORUM-Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Butler, N.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). The Impact of Poland’s 1990 Bill on Schools of Higher
Education. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 9(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493620)
Butler, N.L., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Similarities and Differences: Post-Secondary (Grammar) Vocational Schools in Poland and Canadian Community Colleges. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 9(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493569)
Hart, K.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006) Relapse Prevention for Alcoholism. Doctoral
FORUM- Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Hart, K.E., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006) From Multiple Personality Disorder to Disassociate
Identity Disorder: A Clinical Overview of Diagnosis and Treatment Considerations.
Doctoral FORUM- National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student
Research, 3(1)
Patton, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). The Law of Increasing Returns: A Process for Retaining Teachers- National Recommendations. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495298)
Williams, M.G., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Raising More Money at the Nation’s Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493566)
Belshaw, S.H., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). National Implications in Education and Juvenile Justice: Bridging the Gap Between Court Order Juvenile Mentoring Programs and Secondary Educators. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493124)
Skinner, D.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Educational Leaders as Stewards: Selecting a National Curriculum Guided by the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493140)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). National Agenda: A Holistic Approach for the Development of a Campus Improvement Plan using Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning as the Framework. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493111)
Townsell, R., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). National Insight: A Look at Synnoetics in One African
American Female’s Journey to the Principalship. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal
for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493442)
Demaris, M.C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). A Philosophical Approach to Minority Student Persistence on a Historically Black College and University Campus. Doctoral FORUM- National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493143)
Joshua, M.T., Joshua, A.M., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Use of Student Achievement Scores as a Basis for Assessing Teachers’ Instructional Effectiveness: Issues and Research Results.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 17(3)
Anthony, T.D., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Implications: An Analysis of E- Mentoring Induction Year Programs for Novice Alternatively Certified Teachers. Doctoral FORUM-
National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED493137)
Butler, N.L., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Brief Summary of Doctoral Dissertation: Polish Post-Secondary Vocational Schools and Canadian Community Colleges. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 9(1)
Nickson, L., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). A National Perspective: An Analysis of Factors that
Influence Special Educators to Remain in the Field of Education. Journal of the
American Academy of Special Education Professionals, Spring 2006
Anthony, T.D., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Bilingualism and How it Impacts the African American Child. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492546)
Cheng-Chieh L.., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). The Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Technology in Second Language Acquisition. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492159)
Cloud, M., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Crisis: Recognizing the Culture of Eating Disorders in School Settings. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1) (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492192)
Ellison, E., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Evaluating the Effectiveness of Free Tutoring Programs to Augument Student Success. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Ellison, E., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Making Educational Methods More Lucrative: A Postmodernist’s Perspective. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Gassama, S., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Dropout Prevention Among Urban Minority Students: Program Evaluation and Practical Implications. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Jacobs, K., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). An Assessment of Secondary Principal’s Leadership and Skills in Retaining and Renewing Science Educators in Urban Schools. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492156)
Jacobs, K., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Partially Decentralizing Administrative Practices in Secondary Schools to Develop Collective Staff Efficacy and Improve Student Achievement. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1))
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492155
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Dilemma: African American Students Underrepresented in Advanced Mathematics Courses. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492138)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). The Achievement Gap in Mathematics: A Significant Problem for African American Students. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492139)
Norfleet, S., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). A Postmodern Idea for Improving Schools. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Norfleet, S., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). School Factors that Influence Closing the Academic Achievement Gap for African American Students. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Smith, Y.E., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Recommendations for Implementing Symbolics: Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492099)
Smith, Y.E., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). The Differences in Professional Development with Corporate Companies and Public Education. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492100)
Love, A., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Well Rounded Student Professional Development. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Nickerson, G.T., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). An Analysis of the Factors that Impact Academic Achievement Among Asian American, African American, and Hispanic Students. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Anderson, A.C., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Implications: Factors of Gender Biases Impacting Urban Public Students. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Anderson, A.C., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). A National Exploration of Diversity and Culture in Schools and Corporations. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Wilson, M., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). A Primitive Revelation to Reading. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Gilliam, J.C., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Impact: The Effects of Mentorship on the Level of Retention for African American Freshman Students Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Gilliam, J.C., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Implications: The Hidden Nature of Doctoral Student Attrition. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Branch, R.M., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Agenda: Minority Teacher Recruitment, Development, and Retention. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED499769)
Nickerson, G.T., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). A Global Perspective: A Comparative of Asian and American Educational Systems that Impact Student Academic Achievement. Doctoral
FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Francis, N.H., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). A Brief Analysis of Abraham Maslow’s Original Writing of Self-Actualizing People: A Study of Psychological Health. Doctoral FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3(1)
Butler, N., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). International and National Perspectives: A Critical
Examination of Polish Education and the Philosophical, Historical, Theoretical
Governmental and Educational Reform Initiatives in Changing Pedagogical Strategies
Impacting Classrooms in the Future. International Journal of Scholarly Academic
Intellectual Diversity, 9(1)
Joshua, M., Joshua, A., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Use of Student Achievement Scores as a Basis
For Assessing Teachers’ Instructional Effectiveness: Issues and Research Results.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 20(3)
Johnson, C.J., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). The National Dilemma of African American Students:
Disparities in Mathematics Achievement and Instruction. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 20(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492116)
Salinas, R.A., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006) All Children Can Learn…To Speak English.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 23(2)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491994)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006) National Strategies for Educational Leaders to
Implement Postmodern Thinking in Public Education in the United States of America.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 23(4)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492117)
Anthony, T., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Education in a Test Taking Era. National FORUM of
Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 24(4)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492142)
Jacobs, K., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Strategies for Implementing Postmodern Thinking
for Improving Secondary Education in Public Education in the United States of America.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 23(4
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492157)
Smith, Y., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Insight: Toward a Clearer Understanding of
Preparing High School Students for Passing State Examinations for Graduation in the State
of Texas. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 16(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.492013)
White, P., & Kritsonis, W.A. (2006).The Analysis of the Influence of the Consciousness of the
History of Various Cultures on Student Achievement. National FORUM of Teacher
Journal, 17(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED495300)
Johnson, C., & Kritsonis, W., & Herrington, D. (2006) National Educational Dilemma:
What Does a Student Need to Know? Answer: Ways of Knowing Through the Realms
of Meaning. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 17(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492119)
Smith, Y., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Research Focus: Investigating the Differences in
Professional Development with Corporate Companies and Public Education in the United
States of America. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Journal, 24(4)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED492014)
Idaka, I., Joshua, M., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Attitude of Academic Staff in Nigerian Tertiary
Educational Institutions to Student Evaluation of Instruction (SEI). International
Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 9(1)
Herrington, D., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). A National Perspective for Improving Working
Relationships Between Educational Researchers and Institutional Review Board Members.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 19(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED49199)
White, P., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). The Analysis of the Influence of the Consciousness of the
History of Various Cultures on Student Achievement. National FORUM of Teacher
Education Journal, 17(3)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED49530
Hughes, T., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Perspective: An Exploration of Professional
Learning Communities and the Impact on School Improvement Efforts. Doctoral
FORUM – National Journal for the Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student
Research, 1(1)
(ERIC Documentation Reproduction Service No.ED491997)
Petterway, A., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Focus: A Mixed-Methods Analysis of the
Impact of High Stakes Testing on English Language Learners in Major Urban High Schools
in Texas. DOCTORAL FORUM – National Journal for the Publishing and
Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 1(1)
ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491980)
Salinas, R., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Challenge: Teacher Quality and Student
Achievement in Public Schools. DOCTORAL FORUM – National Journal for
Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 1(1)
Edgerson, D., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). Analysis of the Influence of Principal-Teacher
Relationships on Student Academic Achievement: National Focus. DOCTORAL FORUM -
National Journal for the Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 1(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491985)
Nickson, L., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Considerations: An Analysis of Factors That
Influence Special Educators to Remain in the Field of Education. DOCTORAL FORUM –
National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 1(1)
Parson, G., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Vision: An Assessment of the Habits of African
American Males from Urban Households of Poverty Who Successfully Complete Secondary
Education Programs. DOCTORAL FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and
Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 1(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491986)
Adams, C, & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Impact: An Analysis of Secondary Schools’
Crisis Management Preparedness. DOCTORAL FORUM – National Journal for
Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 1(1)
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED491991)
Kritsonis, W. (2006). FOREWORD: Publishing and Mentoring Doctorial Student Research.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 23(3).
Note: This issue featured PhD Students in Educational Leadership from Lamar University’s
College of Education and Human Development, Beaumont, Texas.
Kritsonis, W. (2006) FOREWORD: National Impact: Single Sex Education; Challenges for
Superintendents; Standardized Assessments; Inclusion; Issues and Challenges; Teacher
Retention. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal.
23(2) Note: This issue featured PhD Students in Educational Leadership from Prairie View
A&M University – Member of the Texas A&M University System.
Kritsonis, W. (2006). FOREWORD: A National Study and Analysis of Poverty and
African American Incarceration. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 23(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2006). FOREWORD: Applying Educational Research at the National Level.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 19(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2006). FOREWORD: Leadership in Educational Research: Addressing the
Critical Needs. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 19(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2006). FOREWORD: National Issues Impacting Teacher Education.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 16(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2006). FOREWORD: Development of Relationships to Improve Teacher
Retention. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 16(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2006). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic
Intellectual Diversity, 9(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2006). On-line Scholarly Electronic Journal Division, National FORUM
Journals - Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
17603 Bending Post Drive
Houston, TX 77093
(281) 550-5700 Home
(832) 483-7889 Cell
williamkritsonis@yahoo.com
Professor
Doctor of Philosophy Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
(Member of the Texas A&M University System)
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View, Texas 77446
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
Central Washington University
College of Education and Professional Studies
Ellensburg, Washington
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
Oriel College
University of Oxford
Oxford, England
Editor-in-Chief
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
Founded 1983
Over 4,000 professors in higher education have published in NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
Over 250,000 Guests Visit Our Website Yearly at www.nationalforum.com
PhD, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1976
M.Ed. Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, Washington, 1971
B.A. Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington
Visiting Scholar, Columbia University, Teachers College, New York, 1981
Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies, Southern Christian University, 2008
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
National Refereed Publications
1983
Kritsonis, W. (1983). A Proposal for Improving Administrative Preparation and Certification
Program. ERIC Reports (Educational Resources Information Center), National Institute of
Education, ERIC Document Reproduction Services, Computer Microfilm International Corp.
ED 225 292. June 1983
Kritsonis, W. (1983). A Proposal for Improving Administrative Preparation and Certification
Program. Resources in Education (RIE). Clearinghouse on Educational Management,
University of Oregon, National Institute of Education. ED 225 292. June 1983
Kritsonis, W. (1983). How to Improve your Effectiveness as an Elementary School Teacher:
New Answers to Lingering Problems ERIC Reports (Educational Resources Information
Center), National Institute of Education, ERIC Document Reproduction Services, Computer
Microfilm International Corp. ED 220 467. January 1983
Kritsonis, W. (1983). How to Improve your Effectiveness as an Elementary School Teacher:
New Answers to Lingering Problems Resources in Education (RIE) Clearinghouse on
Teacher Education, National Institute of Education, American Association of Colleges for
Teacher Education. ED 220 467. January 1983
Kritsonis, W. (1983). FOREWORD: Roots, Revolutions and the Reshaping of Educational
Administration. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Journal, 1(3)
Kritsonis, W. & J. Kariotis (1983). A Study of Selected Court Decisions on the Termination
of Public School Professional Personnel Contracts for Reasons of Declining Enrollment or
Economic Stress In Accordance with the Due Process of Law. National FORUM of
Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 1(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). FOREWORD: Educational Leadership and Supervision in American
Education. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 1(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). FOREWORD: The Quest for Statesmanship in America’s Schools.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 1(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Staff Reduction: School Administrators and the Courts. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 1(1)
(Note: NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS was founded in 1983. Since, then over 4,000 professors in higher education have published in this group of national refereed periodicals. About 2,000 articles are indexed in ERIC. Dr. Kritsonis has edited over 250 separate issues, written over 300 articles, and 10 books.
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Implementing Mid-Year Motivators. West Virginia Association of
School Administrators, January Issue
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Implementing Mid-Year Motivators (Reprinted). PRISM, Idaho
Association of School Administrators, January Issue
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Implementing Mid-Year Motivators (Reprinted) The S.A.S.D.
Open Umbrella, Monthly Voice of the Administrators of South Dakota, 12(6)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Toward Better Understanding of Administrators. Associated School
Boards of South Dakota Bulletin, 35(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Implementing Mid-Year Motivators (Reprinted). The Nevada
Administrators, Las Vegas, Nevada, 1(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Principals, Teachers, and Contract Administration: Applying the
Kritsonis Tetter-Totter Model. RECORD in Educational Administration and
Supervision, 3(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Interest Groups Have Little Impact on School Boards. National
Association of Secondary School Principals NASSP News Leader, 30(6)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Reduction in Force: School Administrators and the Courts. FOCUS-
Journal of the Mississippi Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Schools of Today Are Better Than They Were Fifty Years Ago!
Indiana School Boards Association Journal, 29(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). School Budget Reforms Succumb to Paperwork and Politics.
Illinois School Board Journal, 51(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Individualized Reading and Methods of Instruction: Suggestions for
Teachers and Administrators. Kentucky Reading Journal, 5(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Tips for Principals in Developing a Successful School Year.
Louisiana Association of Principals, 3(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Solomon Speaks to School Board Members – Fifteen Proverbial Sayings
To Board Members for Better Interaction with Administrators. Ohio School Boards Association Journal, 27(11)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). How Principals Can Motivate Teachers. The Florida School
Administrators, 7(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Solomon Says: Fifteen Proverbial Sayings to Administrators for Better
Interaction with Students. The Florida School Administrators, 7(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Leadership Characteristics for School Superintendents (Reprinted)
The Florida School Administrators, 7(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Implementing Mid-Year Motivators. THRUST for Educational
Leadership, Journal of the Association of California School Administrators, 13(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1983). Steps Principals Can Take to Improve Staff Satisfaction and Moral.
Journal of the School Administrators Association of New York State, 14(2)
1982
Kritsonis, W. (1982). What’s the Best Way To Persuade High School Teachers?
National Association of Secondary School Principals NASSP News Leader, 29(9)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). A Proposal for Improving Administrative Preparation and Certification
Programs. RECORD IN Educational Administration and Supervision, 3(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). The Essential Five for the Elementary School Principalship. Kansas
School Board Journal, 21(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). A Study of Selected State Supreme and District Court Decision on the Non- Renewal of Public School Professional Personnel Contracts. Proceedings of the Eighth
Annual Plennary Session, Louisiana Education Research Association, Alternatives for
The 80’s Conference
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Facts About Delegation. Insights, 26(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Improving Administrative and Supervisory Leadership: What Makes A
Good Chairperson. Insight, 26(4)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Kritsonis Teeter-Totter Model. RECORD in Educational
Administration and Supervision, 2(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Characteristics of Leadership (Reprinted). New York Education
Department, Spring Issue
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Discipline in the Schools. Louisiana Education Journal, 7(8)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Education Is Not Enough For Women. Louisiana Education Journal, 7(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Characteristics of Leadership. Louisiana Education Journal, 6(8)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). The Lecture Method of Teaching. Louisiana Education Journal, 6(7)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). The Adolescents’ Perception of Failure (Revised). Louisiana
Education Journal, 6(6)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Preparing for the Principalship. Louisiana Education Journal, 6(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Staff Reduction: Some Procedural Aspects. Louisiana Education
Research Association Journal, 8(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Termination of Public School Professional Personnel Contracts for Reasons of Declining Enrollment or Economic Stress: An Update. Louisiana Education Research Association Journal, 7(1)
Kritsonis, W. & D. Lyles (1982). Teaching Suggestions: Individualized Reading and Methods.
The Boardman, 37(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Helping New Teachers Reduce Stress. National Association of
Secondary School Principals NASSP News Leader, 30(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Do’s and Don’ts for Improving Communication with Administrators.
FOCUS – Ohio School Boards Journal, 26(10)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Leadership Characteristics for School Principals. Louisiana Association
of Principals, 2(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Leadership Characteristics for School Superintendents. West Virginia
Association of School Administrators, 6(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1982) Ways To Improve Staff Relations. The Reporter-Arkansas School
Boards Association, 1(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Leadership Characteristics for School Superintendents (Reprinted)
Administrator – Ohio Association of School Administrators, 9(12)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Leadership Characteristics for School Superintendents. The S.A.S.D.
Open Umbrella, Monthly Voice of the Administrators of South Dakota, 12(4)
Kritsonis, W. (1982). Leadership Characteristics for School Superintendents (Reprinted)
THRUST for Educational Leadership, Journal for the Association of California School
Administrators, 12(3)
Kritsonis, W. & D. Lyles (1982). Individualized Reading and Methods: Suggestions for Teachers
and Administrators. The Oklahoma Reader, 18(1)
1981
Kritsonis, W. (1981). Innovation and Change. Louisiana Education Journal, 6(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1981). Homework Reviewed. Louisiana Education Journal, 6(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1981). Climbing the Administrative Ladder. Louisiana Education Journal, 6(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1981). The Management Team. The Boardman, 36(4)
1977
Kritsonis, W. (1977, March). The Adolescents’ Perception of Failure. The Advocate
Kritsonis, W. (1977, August). Bad Boards? The American School Board Journal, 165(8)
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
1990
Kritsonis, W. (1990). FOREWORD: Issues Surrounding Restructuring of Schools. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 8(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1990). FOREWORD: Restructuring of Schools. National FORUM of
Educational Administration and Supervision Journal (Second Printing), 8(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1990). FOREWORD: National Leadership in Administration and Supervision.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 8(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1990). FOREWORD: National View for Educational Reform.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 8(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1990). FOREWORD: National Imperatives for Applying Educational Research.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 5(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1990). FOREWORD: National Perspectives on Restructuring Schools.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 5(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1990). FOREWORD: The Regular Education Initiative. National FORUM
of Special Education Journal, 1(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1990). Problems of Student Discipline in the Schools. Catalyst for Change,
Journal of the National School Development Council, 19(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1990). Computers and Educational Administrators. Catalyst for Change,
Journal of the National School Development Council, 19(3)
1989
Kritsonis, W. (1989). FOREWORD: National Perspectives: Opportunities and Challenges.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 7(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1989). Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter Model. National FORUM of
Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 7(3)
Kritsonis, W. (with S.S. Bailey) (1989). The Myths of School Consolidation. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 7(3)
Kritsonis, W., & P.E. Messner., J.A. Kisch, E.J. Harper (1989). Jungian Theory: Implications
For Educational Leaders. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 7(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1989). FOREWORD: School Leaders: Providing Direction. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 7(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1989). FOREWORD: Improving Education: Challenges for the Future.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 7(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1989). FOREWORD: National Perspectives: Applying Educational Research.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 3(2)
Kritsonis, W., & B.M. Kean, W.J. O’Neill (1989). Do You Treat the Parts or Do You Treat
the Whole? National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 3(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1989). FOREWORD: Applying Research to Practice: A National Goal.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 3(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1989). FOREWORD: Current Theory and Practice in Learning Disabilities.
National FORUM of Special Education Journal, 1(1)
1988
Kritsonis, W. (1988). Invitation Only by Senior Editor Dr. Richard A. Gorton.
Encyclopedia of School Administration & Supervision, Phoenix & New York:
The Oryx Press
Kritsonis, W. (1998). The Adolescent’s Perceptual of Failure. La Plume: The Official
Publication of the England Air Force Base Officer’s Wives Club, 30(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1988). FOREWORD: Leaders Are Improving America’s Schools.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 6(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1988). FOREWORD: Administrative Leadership in Today’s Schools.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 6(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1988). FOREWORD: Improving Schools Through Administrative Leadership.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 6(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1988). FOREWORD: Applying Educational Research: A National Perspective.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 2(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1988). FOREWORD: National Issues: Visions for the Future. National
FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 2(1)
1987
Kritsonis, W. (1987). FOREWORD: National Reforms in Schooling. National FORUM
of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 5(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1987). FOREWORD: Revitalizing Administrative Leadership in School Systems,
Colleges, and Universities. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision, 5(2)
Kritsonis, W. & R. Blackbourn, D. Hare (1987). Recommended Practices in Education
Administration Programs. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 5(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1987). FOREWORD: Improving Educational Leadership Through Research
and Practice. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal,
5(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1988). FOREWORD: National Issues: Practical Perspectives on Schooling.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 1(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1988). Maintaining School Discipline: Preventive Approaches to Dealing with
Student Misbehavior. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 1(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1988). FOREWORD: Applying Education Research to Schools: Linking Theory
to Practice. National FORUM of Applied Education Research Journal, 1(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1987). Applying Research in Educational Administration and Supervision.
National Researcher, 1(1)
1986
Kritsonis, W. (1986). FOREWORD: Educational Leadership through Research and Practice.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 4(3)
Kritsonis, W. & F. Gies (1986). Writing for Professional Publication: Expert Advice.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, (4(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1986). FOREWORD: Research and Development in School Administration and
Supervision. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal,
4(2)
Kritsonis, W. & C. Ryan, F. Gies, F. Parker (1986). Improving Performance of University
Faculty. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 4(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1986). FOREWORD: Experts in Educational Administration and Supervision.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision, 4(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1986). Reduction in Force: School Boards and the Courts. National FORUM
of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 4(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1986). How To End the School Year with a SPLASH of Enthusiasm.
Louisiana Association of Principals, 6(2)
Kritsonis, W. & R. Cooter (1986). The SRPI: An Instrument for Evaluating High School
Reading Programs. Kentucky Reading Journal, 7(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1986). A Principal Must Be Concerned For All Youth In The School.
AASA Professor, American Association of School Administrators, 9(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1986). Needed Administrative Direction and Support. Journal of
Educational Public Relations, 9(3)
Kritsonis, W. & C. Gurerra (1986). How School Principals Can Improve Their Technical
Skills In the Observation and Evaluation Process. The Oklahoma Reader, 21(2)
Kritsonis, W. & M. Dillard (1986). Megatrends: An Educational Revival for School
Administrators. CATALYST for CHANGE, Journal of the National School Development
Council, 15(2)
1985
Kritsonis, W. (1985).FOREWORD: Researchers in Educational Administration and Supervision.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 3(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1985). A Study of Selected State Supreme and District Court Decisions on the
Non-Renewal of Public School Professional Personnel Contracts for Reasons of Declining
Enrollment or Economic Stress in Accordance With the Due Process of Law.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 3(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1985). FOREWORD: The Future of Education Conference. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 3(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1985). FOREWORD: The Role of the Educational Administrator in Changing
Society. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 3(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1985). How To Survive As A School Superintendent. THRUST for Educational
Leadership, Journal of the Association of California School Administrators, 14(6)
Kritsonis, W. & R. Cooter (1985). Helping Teachers Improve the Reading Program.
FOCUS – Journal of the Mississippi Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, 5(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1985, September). How to Start the School Year: Motivation and Enthusiasm Are
the Keys to success – Tips for Principals. National Association of Secondary School
Principals News Leader
1984
Kritsonis, W. (1984). FOREWORD: Incentives for Excellence in America’s Schools.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 2(3)
Kritsonis, W. (with S. Adams) (1984). School Discipline: Why Do They Act That Way?
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 2(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1984). FOREWORD: Administration and Governance in Higher Education: An
Update. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 2(2)
Kritsonis, W. & S. Adams (1984). School Discipline: Could I Be Part of the Problem?
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 2(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1984). FOREWORD: Understanding Schools is Basic to Improving Them.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 2(1)
Kritsonis, W. & J. Kariotis, R. Capps (1984). How Principals Can Better Motivate Teachers.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 2(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1984) Solomon Says for Administrators Patience is a Virtue. Indiana
School Boards Association Journal, 30(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1984). How Principals Can Motivate Teachers (Reprinted). The Leader-
Published by the Utah Association of Elementary School Principals
Kritsonis, W. (1984). How To Inspire a Positive Mental Attitude Among Teachers. FOCUS -
Journal of the Mississippi Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
4(1)
Kritsonis, W (1984). Solomon Speaks to School Board Members – Fifteen Proverbial Sayings
To School Board Members for Better Interaction with Administrators (Reprinted)
Tennessee School Boards Journal, 1(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1984). Staff Reduction: Some Procedural Aspects. RECORD in
Educational Administration and Supervision, 4(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1984). Profile of an Outstanding Principal. Louisiana Association of
Principals, 4(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1984). How Principals Can Motivate Teachers (Reprinted). Journal of
the School Administrators Associate of New York State, 15(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1984). How Principals Can Motivate Teachers (Reprinted) CALLER –
Published by the South Dakota Association of Elementary School Principals
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Invited Guest Lecturer
OXFORD ROUND TABLE
Oriel College
University of Oxford, ENGLAND
SELECTED PROFESSIONAL AFFILIATIONS (PAST & PRESENT)
National FORUM Society of Educators
University Council on Educational Administration
National Conference of Professors of Educational Administration
Southern Regional Council on Educational Administration
American Association of School Administrators
National School Boards Association
National Association of Secondary School Principals
National Association of Elementary School Principals
American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education
American Association of School Administrators
National Educational Association
Phi Delta Kappa
Mid-South Educational Research Association
Louisiana Reading Association
Iowa Association of School Administrators
Washington Association of School Administrators
Washington Education Association
Iowa State Education Association
Peninsula Education Association
Amana Education Association
Wilton Education Association
Washington Council for the Social Studies
Maryland Association of Teacher Educators
Capitol Area Reading Council
Eastern Educational Research Association
AASA Professor
Louisiana Association of Child Welfare and Attendance Personnel
Louisiana Association of Educational Office Personnel
Louisiana Association of School Administrators of Federally Assisted Programs
Louisiana Association of School Transportation Officials
Louisiana Association of Vocational Administrators
Louisiana Association of Special Education Administrators
Louisiana Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
Louisiana Conference of Professors of Educational Administration
Louisiana Educational Research Association
Louisiana School Public Relations Association
Louisiana Association of School Superintendents
Louisiana School Supervisors’ Association
Louisiana Association of Child Nutrition Programs Supervisors
Louisiana Association of Counselor Educators and Supervisors
Louisiana School Psychological Association
Louisiana State Association of School Personnel Administrators
Phi Delta Kappa, McNeese State University
Phi Delta Kappa, Northwestern State University
Phi Delta Kappa, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Journals – Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
2000
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: Edward W. Chance: A Visionary Leader. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 17(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: Studies for the Technological Era.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 17(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: National Trends in Education: Case Studies Set Aim
for the Future. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Journal, 17(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: Teaching Students: A National Challenge to Educators.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 13(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: Teaching Students in “Style”: A National Challenge
to Educators. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 13(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: College Teaching in Higher Education.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 10(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: Facilitating Technology Training for Teacher Educators.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 10(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic
Intellectual Diversity, 3(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). On-Line Scholarly Electronic Journal Division, National FORUM
Journals – Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
1999
Kritsonis, W. (1999). FOREWORD: National Educational Imperatives: Strategies for
Improvement. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Journal, 16(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1999). FOREWORD: National Trends in Education: Case Studies Set Aim
for the Future. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Journal, 16(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1999). FOREWORD: National Educational imperatives: Improving Today’s
Classroom. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Journal, 16(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1999). FOREWORD: Teacher Education: Addressing the Necessity of Reform
and Restructuring at the National Level. National FORUM of Applied Educational
Research Journal, 12(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1999). FOREWORD: Teacher Education: Addressing the Necessity of Reform
and Restructuring at the National Level. National FORUM of Applied Educational
Research Journal, 12(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1999). FOREWORD: Improving the Quality of Teacher Education Programs.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 9(4)
Kritsonis, W. (1999). FOREWORD: Enhancing Mathematics through the Summer Bridge
Program. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 9(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1999). FOREWORD: Respecting Diverse Urban Cultures. National FORUM of
Teacher Education Journal, 9(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1999). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic
Intellectual Diversity, 2(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1999). On-Line Scholarly Electronic Journal Division, National FORUM
Journals – Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
1998
Kritsonis, W. (1998). FOREWORD: Preparing Educational Leaders: National Agenda.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 15(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1998). FOREWORD: Looking Toward the Future: National Imperatives for
School Administrators. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 15(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1998). FOREWORD: National Imperatives for School Administrators: Looking
Toward the Future National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Journal, 15(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1998). FOREWORD: Field-Centered Teacher Education: Addressing the
Challenges in Reform and Restructuring. National FORUM of Applied Educational
Research Journal, 11(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1998). FOREWORD: Teacher Education: Addressing the Necessity of Reform
and Restructuring at the National Level. National FORUM of Applied Educational
Research Journal, 11(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1998). FOREWORD: Learning Styles and Student Achievement. National
FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 8(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1998). FOREWORD: Field Based Programs at the University of Hawaii at
Manoa. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 8(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1998). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic
Intellectual Diversity, 1(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1998). On-Line Scholarly Electronic Journal Division, National FORUM
Journals – Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
1997
Kritsonis, W. (1997). The Psychology of Leadership in Educational Institutions. Leadership
for the Twenty-First Century, Moscow, Russia. (Article published in Russian in Affiliation
with the Russian Academy of Sciences
Kritsonis, W. (1997). FOREWORD: Strategic Educational Planning: Responding to National
Issues. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 14(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1997). FOREWORD: National Leadership Resources: Building the Future.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 14(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1997). FOREWORD: National Focus on Leadership: Education’s Future.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 14(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1997). FOREWORD: National research Implications Enhance Education.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 10(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1997). FOREWORD: Educational Theories Applied Nationally Improve
Classroom Structure. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 10(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1997). FOREWORD: Teacher Performance: Implications for Urban School
Administrators. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 7(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1997). FOREWORD: International Student Teaching. National FORUM of
Teacher Education Journal, 7(1)
1996
Kritsonis, W. (1996). FOREWORD: National trends: Planning for Education’s Future.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 13(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1996). FOREWORD: National Philosophies: Planning Education’s Future Role.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 13(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1996). FOREWORD: National Perspectives: Thinking into the Future.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 13(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1996). FOREWORD: Applying Effective Educational Theories: A National
Imperative. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 9(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1996). FOREWORD: Applying Educational Research. National FORUM of
Applied Educational Research Journal, 9(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1996). FOREWORD: Initiatives for Educational Renewal. National FORUM of
Teacher Education Journal, 6(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1996). FOREWORD: Learning Styles in Culturally Diverse Nations. National
FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 6(1)
1995
Kritsonis, W. (1995). FOREWORD: National trends: Planning for Education’s Future.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 13(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1995). FOREWORD: National Philosophies: Planning Education’s Future Role.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 13(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1995). FOREWORD: National Perspectives: Thinking into the Future.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 13(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1995). FOREWORD: Applying Effective Educational Theories: A National
Imperative. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 9(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1995). FOREWORD: Applying Educational Research. National FORUM of
Applied Educational Research Journal, 9(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1995). FOREWORD: Helping Teachers Improve Student Success in the Urban
Classroom. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 5(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1995). FOREWORD: National Award Winning Teachers Instructional
Techniques. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 5(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1995). FOREWORD: National Programs Shape Special Education in Schools.
National FORUM of Special Education Journal, 5(1,2)
Kritsonis, W. (1995). The Psychology of Leadership in Educational Organizations.
RECORD in Educational Administration and Supervision, 15(2)
1994
Kritsonis, W. (1994). FOREWORD: National Actions that Enhance Educational Leadership.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 12(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1994). FOREWORD: National Issues Concerning Educational Leadership.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 12(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1994). FOREWORD: Educational Leadership Agenda for the 90’s.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 12(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1994). FOREWORD: Applying Educational Research in Schools: The First 100
Days. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 8(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1994). FOREWORD: Applying Educational Research. National FORUM of
Applied Educational Research Journal, 9(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1994). FOREWORD: National Trends in Teacher Education. National FORUM
of Teacher Education Journal, 4(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1994). FOREWORD: Transforming Teachers: Keys to Successful Reform.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 4(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1994). FOREWORD: National Trends in Special Education.
National FORUM of Special Education Journal, 4(1,2)
1993
Kritsonis, W. (1993). FOREWORD: National Focus on Strategies for Higher Education.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 11(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1993). FOREWORD: National Leadership in Education. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 11(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1993). FOREWORD: National Concerns in Education. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 11(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1993). FOREWORD: Applying Educational Research in Schools.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research, 8(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1993). FOREWORD: National Issues in Educational Research Trends.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 8(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1993). FOREWORD: National Perspectives for Improving Teacher Education.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 3(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1993). FOREWORD: National Implications: Discovering Principals’ Knowledge
about Special Education. National FORUM of Special Education Journal, 3(1,2)
Kritsonis, W. (1993). Writing for Professional Publication: Advice from the Professionals.
Louisiana Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dan Journal,
57(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1993). Comparing Grades in Education and Non-Education Classes: Fact or
Fiction? EDUCATION, 113(4)
Kritsonis, W. (1993). Drugs in Our Schools. EDUCATION, 114(1)
1992
Kritsonis, W. (1992). FOREWORD: National Concerns in Educational Administration and
Supervision. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal,
10(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1992). FOREWORD: National Issues in Educational Administration and
Supervision. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal,
10(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1992). FOREWORD: National Issues: Restructuring – TQM - Family Issues -
Sex Education – School Funding – Politics. National FORUM of Educational
Administration and Supervision Journal, 10(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1992). FOREWORD – SPECIAL EDITION: National Leaders in Educational
Administration. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Journal, 10(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1992). FOREWORD: National Impact: Practical Research Applications for
Education. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 7(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1992). FOREWORD: National Impact: Applying Educational Research to
Practice. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 7(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1992). FOREWORD: National Issues for Improving Teacher Education.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 2(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1992). FOREWORD: National Trends in Special Education. National FORUM
of Special Education Journal, 2(2)
Kritsonis, W. & J. Brown (1992). 13 Ways Not to Be Part of the Discipline Problem.
The Education Digest, 58(4) (89,000 Circulation) Featured in Abstracts Magazine
Summaries, Primary Search, Social Sciences Sources, and University Microfilms Inc., Ann
Arbor, Michigan
1991
Kritsonis, W. (1991). FOREWORD: School Leadership: A Blueprint for Reform. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 9(3)
Kritsonis, W. (1991). FOREWORD: National Agenda: Improving Administration and
Supervisory Leadership in Colleges and Schools. National FORUM of Educational
Administration and Supervision Journal, 9(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1991). FOREWORD: National Leadership: Thoughts for restructuring and
Improving Managerial Productivity. National FORUM of Educational Administration
and Supervision Journal, 9(1)
Kritsonis, W. & R. Eisenman (1991). Availability of Drugs in our Schools as Related to
Student Characteristics: Information from the National Crime Victimization Survey. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 6(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1991). FOREWORD: Researching Education Trends in the Late 1990’s.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 6(2)
Kritsonis, W. (1991). FOREWORD: Applying Educational research in the 1990’s.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 6(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1991). FOREWORD: National Imperatives for Improving Teacher Education.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 1(1)
Kritsonis, W. (1991). FOREWORD: Developing Self-Concepts in Disabled Students. National
FORUM of Special Education Journal, 2(1)
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor (Tenured)
PhD Program in Educational Leadership, PV, Texas A&M University System
2004
Kritsonis, W. (2004). FOREWORD: National Initiatives Directed to Redesigning Educational
Leadership Programs Impacts School Leaders. National FORUM of Educational
Administration and Supervision Journal, 21(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). Basic Procedures in Educational Research and Design for Field Settings.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 21(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). FOREWORD: National Education: Implications in our Learning
Environment. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 21(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). FOREWORD: Continuing Education: A Necessity at the National Level.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 21(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). FOREWORD: National Impact of Education Versus Technology.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 17(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). FOREWORD: Impacts of Education on the National Scale.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 17(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). FOREWORD: Special Tribute to Dr. Ben Wilson, Jr.
Dithyrambic Musings of Benson O’Lottie. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 14(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). FOREWORD: National Issues: Student Performance; Instructional
Practices; Teaching Methods; Art Education; Bilingual Flexibility. National FORUM of
Teacher Education Journal, 14(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic
Intellectual Diversity Journal, 7(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). FOREWORD: Multicultural Issues and Trends. National FORUM of
Multicultural Issues Journal, 2(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2004). On-Line Scholarly Electronic Journal Division, National FORUM
Journals – Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
2003
Kritsonis, W. (2003). FOREWORD: Educational Leadership: National Concerns. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 20(3)
Kritsonis. W. (2003). FOREWORD: New Directions in Educational Leadership. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 20(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2003). FOREWORD: National Issues in Today’s Schooling. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 20(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2003). FOREWORD: National Perspective of Diversified Educational Elements.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 16(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2003). FOREWORD: Diversified Elements of Our National Education System.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 16(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2003). FOREWORD: Unique Needs of Higher Education in Rural America.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 13(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2003). FOREWORD. Multiple Intelligences and the Learner’s Mind. National
FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 13(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2003). FOREWORD: Collaboration in Teacher Education Programs.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 13(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2003). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic
Intellectual Diversity 6(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2003). FOREWORD: The Importance of Multicultural Education. National
FORUM of Multicultural Issues Journal, 1(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2003). On-Line Scholarly Electronic Journal Division, National FORUM
Journals – Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
2002
Kritsonis, W. (2002). FOREWORD: School Reform for Our Modern Era of Technology.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 19(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2002). FOREWORD: Today’s School Children: Adjusting to the Changing
Environment of Schools. National FORUM of Educational Administration and
Supervision Journal, 19(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2002). FOREWORD: School Leadership: National Issues and Imperatives.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 19(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2002). FOREWORD: Educational Developments: How to Structure Today’s
Educational Needs. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 15(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2002). FOREWORD: Educational Problems: Developed Situations in Schools
Today. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 15(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2002). FOREWORD: Exploring Structural Options in Teacher Education.
National FORUM of Teacher Education, 12(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2002). FOREWORD: NCATE – Meeting the Needs of National Standards.
National FORUM of Teacher Education, 12(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2002). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic
Intellectual Diversity, 5(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2002). On-Line Scholarly Electronic Journal Division, National FORUM
Journals – Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
2001
Kritsonis, W. (2001). FOREWORD: The Changing Environment for Today’s School Children.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 18(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2001). FOREWORD: How Technology Innovates Classrooms Today.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 18(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2001). FOREWORD: School Leaders of America: A Call to Arms.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 18(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2001). FOREWORD: Teaching Students: A National Challenge to Educators.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 14(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2001). FOREWORD: School Reform: A National Perspective. National
FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 14(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2001). FOREWORD: Creativity and Accountability in Teacher Education.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 11(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2001). FOREWORD: New Approaches to Teacher Preparation. National
FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 11(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2001). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic
Intellectual Diversity, 4(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2001). On-Line Scholarly Electronic Journal Division, National FORUM
Journals – Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
2000
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: Edward W. Chance: A Visionary Leader. National
FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 17(3)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: Studies for the Technological Era.
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 17(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: National Trends in Education: Case Studies Set Aim
for the Future. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
Journal, 17(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: Teaching Students: A National Challenge to Educators.
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 13(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: Teaching Students in “Style”: A National Challenge
to Educators. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal, 13(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: College Teaching in Higher Education.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 10(2)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD: Facilitating Technology Training for Teacher Educators.
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal, 10(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). FOREWORD. International Journal of Scholarly Academic
Intellectual Diversity, 3(1)
Kritsonis, W. (2000). On-Line Scholarly Electronic Journal Division, National FORUM
Journals – Available daily: www.nationalforum.com
Dr. Kritsonis Recognized as Distinguished Alumnus
In 2004, Dr. Kritsonis was recognized as the Central Washington University Alumni Association Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies. Final selection was made by the Alumni Association Board of Directors. Recipients are CWU graduates of 20 years or more and are recognized for achievement in their professional field and have a positive contribution to society. For the second consecutive year, U.S. News and World Report placed Central Washington University among the top elite public institutions in the west. CWU was 12th on the list in the 2006 On-Line Education of “America’s Best Colleges.”
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
In 2005, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis lectured at the Oxford Round Table at Oriel College in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England. His lecture was entitled Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
In 2005, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis lectured at the Oxford Round Table at Oriel College in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England. His lecture was entitled Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
National FORUM Journals
SLUGGERS Softball Teams - Traveling Tournament Team
18U & 16U & 14U & 12U
COACHING EXPERIENCE
Since 1997, the National FORUM Sluggers Softball Team had 164 wins, 32 defeats, and 6 ties.
Three Undefeated State Championship in 2000 and 2001
SOFTBALL COACH, National FORUM Journals SLUGGERS, Girls Fast-Pitch, 18U Southwest Louisiana, Spring/Summer 2001. Traveling Tournament Team. ASA 2001 Undefeated Louisiana State Champions, Sulphur, Louisiana. Since 1997 the SLUGGERS have had 164 wins, 32 defeats, and 6 ties
HEAD SOFTBALL COACH, National FORUM Journals SLUGGERS, Girls Fast-Pitch 16U Southwest Louisiana, Spring/Summer 2000. Traveling Tournament Team. ASA 2000 Undefeated Louisiana State Champions, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
HEAD SOFTBALL COACH, National FORUM Journals SLUGGERS, Girls Fast-Pitch 16U Southwest Louisiana, Spring/Summer 2000. Traveling Tournament Team. USSSA 2000 Undefeated Louisiana State Champions, St. Amant, Louisiana
COACH, National FORUM Journals FIREBALLS, Girls Fast-Pitch, Amateur Softball Association, 14 & Under, Sulphur, Louisiana. Spring/Summer/Fall 1999. Traveling Tournament Team. Played numerous tournaments
HEAD SOFTBALL COACH, National FORUM Journal SLUGGERS, Girls Fast-Pitch, Amateur Softball Association, 14 & Under, Lake Charles, Louisiana. Fall 1998. Traveling Tournament Team. Played in several fast-pitch tournaments in Texas and Louisiana during the fall
ALL-STAR SOFTBALL COACH, LAKE CHARLES WILDCATS, Girls Fast-Pitch, Amateur Softball Association, 12 & Under, Lake Charles, Louisiana. Summer 1998. Finished 4th in the state of Louisiana
HEAD SOFTBALL COACH, National FORUM Journal SLUGGERS, Girls Fast-Pitch, Amateur Softball Association, 12 & Under, Lake Charles, Louisiana. Spring/Summer 1998.
Lake Charles City League Champions.
HEAD SOFTBALL COACH, National FORUM Journals SLUGGERS, Girls Fast-Pitch, Amateur Softball Association, 12 & Under, Lake Charles, Louisiana. Fall 1997. Traveling Tournament Team. Played in several fast-pitch tournaments in Texas and Louisiana during the fall.
ALL-STAR SOFTBALL COACH, LAKE CHARLES ROCKETS, Girls Fast-Pitch, Amateur Softball Association, 12 & Under, Lake Charles, Louisiana. Summer 1997. Finished 12th in the state of Louisiana
HEAD SOFTBALL COACH, National FORUM Journals SLUGGERS, Girls Fast-Pitch, Amateur Softball Association, 12 & Under, Lake Charles, Louisiana. Spring/Summer 1997. Finished Second Place
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge - Department of Administrative and Foundational Services, College of Education
OFF CAMPUS AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT (PAST)
VOLUNTEER, Picture Day, S.J. Welsh Middle School, Calcasieu Parish, Lake Charles, Louisiana. ( October 1990)
SPECIAL OLYMICS VOLUNTEER, Phi Delta Kappa, 1983 International Special Olympics “People Power” Pool. (July 1983)
VOLUNTEER TUTOR, La Salle Elementary School, East Baton Rouge Parish, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. (1981-1983)
PARLIAMENTARIAN (Elected), Parent-Teacher Organization, La Salle Elementary School, East Baton Rouge Parish Schools, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. (1982-1984)
PRESIDENT (Elected) Parent-Teacher Organization, La Salle Elementary School, East Baton Rouge Parish Schools, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. (1981-1984)
MEMBER, Parent Association for C-G Gymnastics Club, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. (1981-1984)
DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC RELATIONS & PUBLICITY, The Green Orthodox Community of the Eastern Shore, Salisbury-Ocean City, Maryland. (1980-1981)
MEMBER, Parent Association for Salisbury Gymnastics Club, Salisbury, Maryland. (1980-1981)
BOARD OF TRUSTEES, The Greek Orthodox Community of the Eastern Shore, Salisbury-Ocean City, Maryland. (1980-1981)
VOLUNTEER SOCCER COACH, “The Driller’s” Salisbury Community Soccer Association. (1980-1981)
SPONSOR, SOCCER TEAM, “WAK” Salisbury Community Soccer Association. (1980-1981)
EXECUTIVE BOARD MEMBER, CETA Youth Programs, Ellensburg, Washington. (1978- 1980)
FACULTY YOUTH ADVISOR, Circle-K International Club, Central Washington University, Kiwanis of Ellensburg, Washington. (1978-1980)
VOLUNTEER, Kittitas County United Way Campaign, Ellensburg, Washington. (1978-1980)
MEMBER, Fund Raising Parent Campaign Drive, Ellensburg Windy-City Gymnastics Club, Ellensburg, Washington. (1980)
CHAIRPERSON, National Family Week Planning Committee, Preston, Iowa. (1978)
DIRECTOR, Community Adult Education Program, Preston, Iowa. (1978)
MASTER OF CEREMONIES, Community Spring Musical Variety Show, Wilton, Iowa. (1977)
PROGRAM COORDINATOR, Eastern Iowa 1976 Political Rally for “Let’s Meet the Candidates” seeking election to public office in Eastern Iowa. (Fall 1976)
MEMBER, Planning Board, Community Bicentennial Parade Commission, Wilton, Iowa, (1976)
VOLUNTEER, American Cancer Society Drive, Wilton, Iowa. (1975)
VOLUNTEER, American Cancer Society Drive, Amana, Iowa. (1974)
BAND MEMBER, Amana Octoberfest Polka Band, Amana Colonies, Amana, Iowa. Player Accordion. (1973-1974
BASEBALL COACH, Amana Colonies, Pony and Little League Baseball Teams, Amana, Iowa. (Summer 1974)
VOLUNTEER BASEBALL COACH, Lincoln High School, Seattle, Washington. (Spring 1968)
BASEBALL COACH, North Central Little League Association, Seattle, Washington. (Summer 1968)
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Editor-in-Chief
National FORUM Journals
www.nationalforum.com
Over 250,000 Guests Visit the Website Yearly
SELECTED CONSULTIVE AND WORKSHOP INVOLVEMENT (PAST & PRESENT)
INVITED GUEST, University of Oxford, Department of Education Studies, Oxford, England. Topic: Publishing in Scholarly Journals. (Summer 1997)
Invited by Dr. John Petry, former editor of NEA TODAY (National Educational Journal), (November 1993)
INVITED PRESENTER, “Writing and Getting Published” Publishing Symposium at the Mid-South Educational Research Association’s Annual Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana. Presentation focused on problems associated with writing and publishing manuscripts in refereed professional journals.
Appointed by Sponsored Programs at McNeese State University to assist in recruiting top students from across the United States. (1993-1997)
GUEST PRESENTER, Calcasieu Parish School System, Chapter 1 Teachers “Motivating Students to Learn,” (August 1993)
“Writing for Professional Publication” Publishing Symposium at the Mid-South Educational Research Association’s Annual Conference, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. Invited Presenter. Presentations by editors of major scholarly refereed, peer-reviewed professional journals. Invited by Dr. Thomas Petry, former editor of NEA TODAY (National Education Association Journal Today). (November 1991)
“Teaching Techniques: Focusing on Those Techniques Needed to Conduct a 90-Minute Class Period” Faculty Inservice, Saint Louis High School, Calcasieu Center for Catholic Studies, Lake Charles, Louisiana. (August 1992)
“Writing for Professional Publication” Publishing Symposium at Annual Conference of the Eastern Educational Research Association. Marriott’s Copley Palace, Boston, Massachusetts. Invited Presenter. Presentations by major publishing company editors, scholarly book publishers, editors of scholarly journals, and authors of educational research and textbooks. Invited by Dr. Jeffrey S. Kaiser, Program Chairperson. (February 1991)
“Dealing Effectively with the Obstinate Teacher” LEAD PROJECT, McNeese, Department of Administration and Supervision, Burton College of Education, Lake Charles, Louisiana. (Fall 1990, Spring 1991)
MEMBER, NCATE Committee, Department of Administration and Supervision, McNeese State University. (1990-92)
MEMBER, McNeese State University Student Activity Committee. (1992-1997)
CHAIRPERSON, Search Committee for two faculty positions in the Department of Administration and Supervision, McNeese State University. (1992)
ADVISOR, Student Louisiana Association of Educators. McNeese State University. (1990-1997)
LEAD Program, McNeese State University, Burton College of Education. (1990-1995)
“Dealing Effectively with the Obstinate Teacher” LEAD Project, McNeese State University, Department of Administration and Supervision, College of Education, Lake Charles, Louisiana. Deals with a variety of topics that are specifically identified by practicing school administration. (Fall 1990, Spring 1991)
“How to Put Enthusiasm Into Teaching Before Christmas Vacation” Parkview Elementary School, East Baton Rouge Parish Schools, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Fall 1990
FACULTY DEVELOPMENT WORKSHOP, “Writing for Professional Publication in Refereed/Peer-Reviewed Journals” McNeese State University, College of Education, Lake Charles, Louisiana. (Fall 1990)
VISITING GUEST PROFESSOR, Wright State University, Department of Educational Leadership, College of Education and Human Resources, Dayton, Ohio. (March 1990-June 1990)
WORKSHOP, “Writing for Professional Publication in Refereed and Non-Refereed Journals” West Virginia College of Graduate Studies, Institute, West Virginia. (February 1989)
EDUCATIONAL CONSULTANT, Louisiana Association of Educators/National Education Association, (1988-1989)
SCHOLAR IN RESIDENCE, Wright State University, College of Education and Human Resources, Dayton, Ohio. Follow-up sessions with faculty to discuss the publication of manuscripts, manuscript proposals, and ideas. (May 1988)
SCHOLAR IN RESIDENCE, Wright State University, College of Education and Human Services, Dayton, Ohio. Worked with faculty members on preparing manuscripts for publication in refereed and non-refereed journals. (October 1987)
CONSULTANT REVIEWER, Kathleen Wright Award, Nova University, Center for the Advancement of Education, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. (Spring 1986)
TEXTBOOK CONSULTANT REVIEWER, Personnel Administration Texts for Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, Columbus, Ohio. (1986-1990)
WORKSHOP, “Managing Conflict in School and Society” Rapides Parish School Board, Alexandria, Louisiana. (June 1986)
WORKSHOP, “Managing Conflict in School and Society” Caddo Parish School Board, Shreveport, Louisiana. (January 1986)
WORKSHOP, “Managing Conflict in School and Society” Natchitoches Parish School Board, Natchitoches, Louisiana. (September 1985)
WORKSHOP, “Managing Conflict in School and Society” Vernon Parish School Board, Leesville, Louisiana. (September 1985)
CONSULTANT, “Motivating College Students to Actively Participate in the Learning Process” for the faculty of Southern University, Shreveport, Louisiana. (August 1985)
CONSULTANT, “Fantastic Folders for Fantastic Readers” Louisiana Reading Association Eighth Annual Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana. (October 1983)
WORKSHOP, “Activities Aimed at Avid Readers” East Baton Rouge Parish Schools, Staff Development Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. (August 1983)
CONSULTANT, “School Discipline: Some Practical Alternatives for Teachers and Principals” Redemptorist Senior High School, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. (August 1982)
WORKSHOP, “Parents Aiding in Reading: Parental Involvement in the Schools” East Baton Rouge Parish Schools, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. (August 1982)
CONSULTANT, Bekins Able Moving & Storage, Inc., Baton Rouge, Louisiana. “Practical Application of McGregor’s Theory X and Y.” (Spring 1982)
WORKSHOP, “Student Teachers: Cooperating Teacher Responsibilities” for Cooperating Teachers from Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, Salisbury State College, Maryland. (Fall 1980, Spring 1981)
CONSULTANT, “Effective Practices for School Administrators” Wicomico Board of Education Association of School Administrators, Salisbury, Maryland. (Spring 1981)
CONSULTANT, “Improving Parent-Teacher Communication” Wicomico County, Parent-Teacher Association North Salisbury Elementary School, Maryland. (Spring 1981)
CONSULTANT, “Responsibilities of LEA’s” in the Student Teaching and Field Experiences Program in Higher Education Worcester County Board of Education Association of School Administrators, Princess Anne, Maryland. (Spring 1981)
CONSULTANT, “Motivation for Change” First Annual Training Institute, State of Washington Adult Corrections Division, Department of Social & Health Services (DSHS), Ellensburg, Washington. ( Fall 1979)
CONSULTANT, “Problems of Adult Motivation” American Heart Association Annual State Conference, Seattle, Washington. (Winter 1979)
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
REGIONAL ACCREDITATION INVOLVEMENT (PAST)
MEMBER, Visiting Commission of Secondary Schools of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools for Review and Self-Evaluation of Sulphur High School in Calcasieu Parish School System. Louisiana State University Representative. Responsible for Evaluating: School and Community; Philosophy and Objectives; Emerging and Unique Programs; Home Economics Preparatory Food Services; Photography; Drama; Data Processing; Community Service Leadership Training; Art and the Elementary Student; SAPE (Substance Abuse Prevention in Education). (Spring 1983)
MEMBER, Visiting Commission of Secondary Schools of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools for Review and Self-Evaluation of Jeanerette High School in Iberia Parish School System. Louisiana State University Representative. Responsible for Evaluating: School, Staff and Administration; Student Auxiliary Programs. (Spring 1982)
MEMBER, Visiting Commission of Secondary Schools of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools for Review and Self-Evaluation of Robert E. Lee High School in East Baton Rouge Parish School System. Louisiana State University Representative. Responsible for Evaluating: School, Staff and Administration; School and Community; Emerging New Programs. (Spring 1982)
MEMBER, Visiting Commission of Secondary Schools of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools for Review and Self-Evaluation of DeRidder Junior High School in Beauregard Parish School System. Louisiana State University Representative. Responsible for Evaluating: Student Auxiliary Services; School Plant and Facilities; Served on Editing Committee. (Fall 1981)
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
UNIVERSITY COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION (UCEA)
MEMBER, UNIVERSITY COUNCIL FOR EDUCTAIONAL ADMINISTRATION (UCEA) Program Center for Educational Public Relations Committee-at-Large. 1985-1995
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Editor-in-Chief
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
www.nationalforum.com
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
On-Line Scholarly Electronic Journal Division
Over 56,000 Guests Visit Website Yearly – www.nationalforum.com
FOCUS-Focus on Colleges, Universities, and Schools
DOCTORAL FORUM – The Official Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research
International Journal of Management, Business and Administration
International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal
National FORUM of Special Education Journal
National FORUM of Multicultural Issues Journal
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Editor-in-Chief
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
www.nationalforum.com
EDITORIAL DUTIES – NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
Since 2007-Present EDITOR
FOCUS – Focus On Colleges, Universities, and Schools
Since 2006-Present EDITOR
DOCTORAL FORUM - The Official Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research
Since 2005-Present EDITOR
International Journal of Management, Business, and Administration (IJ MBA)
Since 2003 – Present EDITOR
National FORUM of Multicultural Issues Journal (NFMI JOURNAL)
Since 1998 – Present EDITOR
On-Line Scholarly Electronic Journal Division, National FORUM Journals – Over 56,000 Guests Visit Website Yearly
Since 1997 – Present EDITOR
International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity (IJ SAID)
Since 1990 – Present EDITOR
National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal (NFTE JOURNAL)
Since 1989 – Present EDITOR
National FORUM of Special Education Journal (NFSE JOURNAL)
Since 1987 – Present EDITOR
National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal (NF AERJ)
Since 1983 – Present EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal (NFEAS JOURNAL)
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Invited Dissertation Committee for Norman L. Butler, Institute of Educational Research, Warsaw, Poland.
Norman Butler POLISH POST-SECONDARY VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS AND
CANADIAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES DEGREE GRANTING INSTITUTIONS: Institute for Educational Research, Warsaw, Poland (PhD Granted Fall 2005
Doctoral Dissertation Committee:
Stefan M. Kwiatkowski (Chair) Institute for Educational Research,
Warsaw, Poland; Rafal Piwowarski (Reviewer) Institute for Educational Research, Warsaw, Poland; Andrzej Janowski (Reviewer) Deputy Minister of Education, Republic of Poland; Barry Davidson (Invited Outside Reviewer); Troy University, Troy, Alabama; William Allan Kritsonis (Invited Outside Reviewer) Prairie View A&M University (Member of the Texas A&M University System)
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Graduate Advisor for Master of Education Degree Projects/Thesis
Master of Education Degree
McNeese State University, Department of Educational Leadership and Instructional Technology, Burton College of Education (120)
2004
Deana M. Cole HOW DID A SMALL, RURAL SCHOOL IMPROVE
ASTRONOMICALLY IN JUST A SINGLE YEAR?
Mary Claire Cormier EFFECTS OF COMPUTERS ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT
& Robin C. Primeaux
Donna R. Duhon THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LOOPING ON SECOND GRADE STUDENTS AT SOUTH CROWLEY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL: DOES LOOPING AFFECT STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES IN MATHEMATICS AND LANGUAGE ARTS
Joy Fox EFFECTS OF BLOCK SCHEDULING ON STUDENTS’ ATTENDANCE AT LEBLANC MIDDLE
Jerome Goodly SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Christina Elaine TECHNOLOGY AND CURRICULUM DESIGN: A PROJECT FOR
Harris ENHANCING TECHNOLOGY IN THE CREATIVE ARTS AT BARBE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL IN CALCASIEU PARISH SCHOOLS
Marcia Miller EFFECTS OF SCHOOL ACCOUNTABILITY ON TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN IOWA HIGH SCHOOL
Wynetta Proctor THE EFFECTS OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT ON THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS OF STUDENTS
Angela Setton CONTRIBUTIONS OF PHILOSOPHERS TO EDUCATION
2003
Angela McManemin THE EFFECTS OF ATTENDANCE OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF FIFTH GRADE STUDENTS AT LEBLEU SETTLEMENT ELEMENTARY SCHOOL FOR THE 2002-2003 SCHOOL YEAR
Stephen Brown A STUDY ON SCHOOL CONSOLIDATION
Carolyn Conner KINDERGARTEN READINESS: FACTORS THAT DETERMINE A CHILD’S READINESS TO ENTER KINDERGARTEN
Mitchell Fontenot HELPFUL HINTS FOR A FIRST YEAR ADMINISTRATOR
Mark S. Freshley THE EFFECTS OF SCHOOL VOUCHES ON OUR EDUCATION SYSTEM
Christie Guidry THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PRE-KINDERGARTEN ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF FIRST GRADE STUDENTS
Kelli Heckerd & THE EFFECTS OF YEAR-ROUND SCHOOL ON STUDENT
Chester Ellender LEARNING
Margaret Hieronymus THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF STAFF DEVELOPMENT ON TEACHER PERCEPTIONS ON INTEGRATING TECHNOLOGY INTO CLASSROOM CURRICULUMS IN BEAUREGARD PARISH
Benita January THE EFFECTS INCLUSION ON REGULAR EDUCATION
Brenda Joubert THE EFFECTS OF THE FOUR-DAY SCHOOL WEEK ON TEACHER AND STUDENT ATTENDANCE
Pamela R. March THE EFFECTS OF FAMILY STRUCTURE ON STUDENT ACHIEVE- MENT
Bobby Matt EFFECTS OF GRADE RETENTION IN ELEMENTARY AND MIDDLE SCHOOLS
David Pool EFFECTS OF BLOCK SCHEDULING ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVE- MENT AT SULPHUR HIGH SCHOOL
Dave Rhodes STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS
Jeptha M. Wall THE EFFECTS OF A CIRCUIT WEIGHT TRAINING PROGRAM ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION STUDENTS AT CHURCH POINT HIGH SCHOOL
Donna Woods THE EFFECTS OF CLASS SIZE ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
2002
Phyliss R. Arndt THE EFFECTS OF TEAM TEACHING ON TEACHER JOB
SATISFACTION WITHIN A DEPARTMENTALIZED ENVIRON- MENT
Dielle S. Barrentine FOREIGN LANGUAGE IMMERSION AND UNIVERSITY
& Robert L. PREPAREDNESS: A STUDY OF SPANISH IMMERSION STUDENTS
Barrentine IN SULPHUR LOUISIANA
Dwain Ducote & CECP COACHES: A STUDY OF LOUISIANA’S ALTERNATE
John Cryer COACHING CERTIFICATION PROGRAM
Christopher S. YEAR ROUND EDUCATION: HISTORY, BACKGROUND,
Fontenot IMPLICATIONS AND PRE-SERVICE (NON-YRE) TEACHER PERCEPTIONS
Willie M. Golden, Jr. THE EFFECTS OF MOTIVATION, LEARNING, AND COMPUTERS
& Catherine Smith
Gregory Guillory DIRECT INSTRUCTION AND DISTANCE LEARNING AT MCNEESE
& Lori Guillory STATE UNIVERSITY
Starlette D. Guillory THE EFFECTS OF THE PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT SCHOOL MODEL ON 6TH GRADERS AT OAK PARK MIDDLE SCHOOL
Arlene Hobaugh COMPONENTS OF FIELD STUDY RESEARCH
Wyonna Jeane THE EFFECTS OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS ON STUDENT ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND BEHAVIOR
Belinda Keller, THE EFFECTS OF ZERO TOLERANCE ON SCHOOL DISCIPLINE
Renee LeJeune, REFERRALS AND SUSPENSIONS
& Kirk Meche
Lorette M. LaVergne PUBLIC SCHOOL EDUCATION COMPARED TO ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL EDUCATION AS MEASURED BY THE LOUISIANA LEAP TEST
Brett LeBeouf PHONEMIC AWARENESS: A BUILDING BLOCK OF READING
Belinda Morse HIGH SCHOOL INCLUSION AT CROWLEY HIGH SCHOOL
Scott Nunez THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON STRESS IN UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS
Doreen H. Pearson EFFECTS OF POSITIVE DISCIPLINE ON ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Stephanie Rogers THE IMPACT OF SCHOOL STARTING TIME AT SOUTH CAMERON HIGH SCHOOL
Cornelia A. Sanford NEEDS OF SCHOOL COUNSELORS IN THE ROLE OF SCHOOL CRISIS TEAM MEMBER
Wayne D. Wells A STUDY OF AFRICAN AMERICAN, ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED, AND MINORITY STUDENTS IN BEAUMONT INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT’S GIFTED AND TALENTED PROGRAM
Nancy B. Willis A STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF YEAR-ROUND EDUCATION ON THIRD AND FOURTH GRADE STUDENTS AT SHREVE ISLAND ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Jessica R. Hickman- ADVANTAGES VS. DISADVANTAGES OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS IN
Zaunbrecher PUBLIC SCHOOLS
2001
Dorrie Adolph INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION VERSUS GROUP INSTRUCTION FOR LEARNING DISABLED STUDENTS IN GRADE FIVE
Tim Brannon, A COMPARISON OF FOUR-DAY SCHOOLS AND FIVE-DAY
Gary Lockhart, SCHOOLS IN BEAUREGARD PARISH
& Eddie Joslin
Donald Courville, Jr. THE EFFECTS OF SINGLE-PARENT FAMILIES AS OPPOSED TO
& Neal C. Young TWO-PARENT FAMILIES ON ACADEMIC ACHIVEMENT OF CHILDREN
Valerie Cox EFFECTIVENESS OF THE LASIP MATHEMATICS PROJECT ON THE PERFORMANCE-BASED PROBLEMS OF THE FOURTH GRADE LEAP21
Margaret Davis THE EFFECTS OF RESEARCH AND EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Wanda DeVille THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ARITHMETIC LEAP REMEDIATION ON PARTICIPATING STUDENTS IN CALCASIEU PARISH
Elliot Ford THE ROLE OF THE PRINCIPAL IN THE FOSTERING OF GOOD CHARACTER
Janet Gilpin THE EFFECTS OF MUSIC IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Melinda D. Hardy THE EFFECTS OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT AT JESSIE D. CLIFTON ELEMENTARY SCHOOL WITH THIRD GRADE STUDENTS
Marc Jardell STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS: A SURVEY OF J.R. WATSON MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
Christina Richard GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS
Lantz
David LeJeune THE EFFECTS OF STRESS ON AVERAGE FRESHMEN AT LAFAYETTE HIGH SCHOOL
Sheryl LeJeune AN ANALYSIS OF FACTORS INFLUENCING POOR TEST PERFORMANCE ON THE IOWA TEST OF BASIC SKILLS
Sandy Matthews THE EFFECTS OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS AT FAIRVIEW ELEMENTARY
Shonda Mhire THE EFFECTS OF PROBLEM BEHAVIORS ON A CHILD’S LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Daniel R. Miller THE EFFECTS OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS ON TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN’S BEHAVIOR
Delores D. Miller THE EFFECTS OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS ON TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN’S BEHAVIOR
Jonathon R. Powers USING WRITING PORTFOLIOS AND COOPERATIVE LEARNING AS METHODS OF ASSESSING ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
James Brad EFFECTIVENESS OF BLOCK SCHEDULING ON STUDENTS AND
Prudhomme LEARNING IN ERATH HIGH SCHOOLS
Janet Ritchie TEACHING SPECIAL EDUCATION STUDENTS IN CALCASIEU PARISH: INCLUSION VERSUS SELF-CONTAINED
Tonya Ryder THE EFFECTS COCAINE HAS ON A CHILD’S BEHAVIOR WHEN TAKEN PRENATALLY
Sanders J. Senegal THE RETENTION OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS ATTENDING LOUISIANA TECHNICAL COLLEGE GULF AREA CAMPUS
Janet Shields PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF THE CULTURALLY DISADVANTAGE VERSUS THE NON-PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT
Sarah LeBouef THE EFFECTS OF SIGNING BONUSES ON THE RECRUITMENT
Single AND RETENTION OF TEACHERS IN THE BEAUREGARD SCHOOL DISTRICT
Terrie Smith IMPROVING TEST SCORES: DOES COMPUTERIZED INSTRUCTIONAL INTERVENTION MAKE A DIFFERENCE?
Gerald W. Treme, Jr. THE EFFECTS OF COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL REFORMS
Deborah Vidrine THE EFFECTS OF PLACING CHILDREN BY CHRONOLOGICAL AGE IN KINDERGARTEN
Valeria Welsh STUDENTS’ OPINIONS ABOUT SCHOOL UNIFORMS: A SURVEY OF LAGRANGE HIGH SCHOOL
2000
Kimberly D. Bertrand THE EFFECTS OF THE D.A.R.E. PROGRAM IN THE ELTON, LOUISIANA SCHOOLS
Evette R. Broussard THE CORRELATION BETWEEN ACT SCHORES AND TEST PREPARATION AT LAKE ARTHUR HIGH SCHOOL
Dianne Brown IMPROVING SCHOOL READINESS: DOES PRESCHOOL MAKE A DIFFERENCE?
Todd Brown THE EFFECTS OF SCHOOL VIOLENCE ON CULTURE
Shauna Savant LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF READING RECOVERY INTERVENTION
Burkhead ON THE COGNITIVE BEHAVIORS OF SECOND GRADE CHILDREN AND THE PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR TEACHERS
Claude James THE EFFECTS OF LEARNING STYLES AND ACADEMIC
Courville ACHIEVEMENT
Doug DeVillier THE IMPACT OF POWERPOINT AND INSPIRATION SOFTWARE ON CLASSROOM TEST SCORES
Julia M. Dickerson THE EFFECTS OF INCLUSION ON ATTITUDES OF TEACHERS AT LITTLE CYPRESS ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Darlene Dosman THE EFFECTS OF BLOCK SCHEDULING AND LACASINE HIGH SCHOOL AFTER ONE YEAR
Elizabeth Harson LOOPING OR TRADITIONAL PROGRESSION: DOES LOOPING IMPROVE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT?
Cindy M. Istre A COMPARISON OF JOB SATISFACTION IN PUBLIC AND PAROCHIAL HIGH SCHOOLS IN ACADIA PARISH, LOUISIANA
Carola K. Jolivette BLOCK SCHEDULING: IS THERE A HAPPY MEDIAN FOR CHURCH POINT HIGH SCHOOL
Ette Lampkin A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE PERCEPTIONS AND BELIEFS OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS TAUGHT BY CAUCASIAN AMERICAN TEACHERS
Shirley Leger A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS ON THE DEPARTMENTALIZATION OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS
Tiffany Manuel A HANDS-ON INTERDISCIPLINARY TEACHING APPROACH TO IMPROVE LEAP TEST SCORES
Ocie P. McGuire THE EFFECTS OF BLOCK SCHEDULING IN RELATION TO STUDENT ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS
Julie Hebert Ortego A COMPARISON OF MALES AND FEMALES ACADEMIC ABILITIES IN THE LANGUAGE ARTS CURRICULUM
Pat Schooler A PROACTIVE APPROACH TO RAISING TEST SCORES FOR ACCOUNTABILITY: EFFECTIVENESS OF LA SIP TRAINED STANDARDS-BASED INSTRUCTION FOR THE LEAP INTERVENTION II MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Holly S. Vidrine THE EFFECTS OF MATH IOWA SCORES BASED ON GENDER
Jennifer S. White COOPERATING TEACHERS REFLECTIONS REGARDING STRATEGIES FOR FUTURE SUPERVISORY ASSIGNMENTS
1999
Kim Brannon A COMPARISON OF 4-DAY SCHOOLS AND 5-DAY SCHOOLS
Charlene Cobb TEACHING DIVERSITY AT SCHOOL
Tammy Fontenot THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING YOUR CHILD GIFTED
Robert L. Goodly MANIPULATIVES AND MATHEMATICAL ACHIEVEMENT IN UPPER-ELEMENTARY GRADE STUDENTS
Rico Guillory RESEARCH ON DESEGREGATION
Lorie A. LeDoux THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND THE LANGUAGE MINORITY STUDENTS
Frances LeMaire COMPARISON OF WHOLE-LANGUAGE METHODS AND PHONICS-BASED METHODS IN READING
Dena Marks A STUDY OF THE LOUISIANA EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT PROGRAM (LEAP) FOR THE 21ST CENTURY EARLY INTERVENTION PROGRAM
Jack Albert Miller THE EFFECTS OF SCHOOL CONSOLIDATION AND SCHOOL CLOSURE
Linda C. Newmiller THE EFFECTS OF BLOCK SCHEDULING ON ACHIVEMENT IN MATH
Vicki Perkins COMPARING LEAP TEST ITEMS WITH TEACHER TEST ITEMS
James E. Ray THE EFFECTS OF DECISION MAKING SITE-BASED VERSUS TOP-DOWN
Elroi J. Simon THE EFFECTS OF STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION ON ACADEMICS
Jeanette Hudson A STUDY OF THE TEACHERS IN ORANGE COUNTY, TEXAS TO
Stanley DETERMINE FACTORS THAT ARE AFFECTING JOB SATISFACTION AND JOB DISSATISFACTION
Pam Williamson THE EFFECTS OF INCLUSION AT PEARL WATSON ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Jo Anne Winfrey COLLABORATION VERSUS ISOLATION ON NEW TEACHERS OF CALCASIEU PARISH
Melissa G. THE EFFECTS OF COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION ON
Zaunbrecher TEACHING STRATEGIES IN BLOCK SCHEDULING
1998
Tracey Churchman EFFECTS ACTION RESEARCH IN TODAY’S EDUCATION SYSTEM
Casey P. Delhomme A STUDY OF BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AMONG ATHLETIC STUDENTS AND NON-ATHLETIC STUDENTS IN HIGH SCHOOL
Willliams Goodly LOUISIANA TEACHER ASSISTANCE AND ASSESSMENT PROGRAM: DOES IT REALLY WORK?
Robert C. Greene A STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF PBESITY FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF NINTH GRADE STUDENTS
Amy Hebert IMPLICATIONS OF TECHNOLOGY IN THE CLASSROOM
Linda Kimberly THE EFFECTS OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLS
McCullough
Julie A. Parham IMPLICATIONS FOR TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Lawrence A. ART AS A CENTRAL SUBJECT FOR AN INTEGRATIVE
Rybicki CURRICULUM DESIGN
Greg Theriot MULTIDIMENSIONAL LEARNING STYLES AND THE MODERN CLASSROOM
Quint West THE EFFECTIVENESS OF MENTOR TEACHERS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD was invited to lecture at the OXFORD ROUND TABLE in Oriel College in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England, Summer 2006.
Dr. Kritsonis: Major Professor for Completed Graduate Research Thesis, Field Studies and/or Projects: Education Specialist Degree
Education Specialist Degree
McNeese State University, Department of Educational Leadership and Instructional Technology, Burton College of Education (74)
2004
Julie Anne Ambros THE EFFECTS OF CHARACTER EDUCATION ON 8TH GRADE STUDENTS’ DEVELOPMENT IN CALCASIEU PARISH SCHOOLS
Chad Aucoin THE PERCEPTIONS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AS VIEWED BY THE STUDENT BODY OF STARKS HIGH SCHOOL
Rebecca Chapman A STUDY OF HATHAWAY HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF SELECTED FACTORS SINCE THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE DISCIPLINE REFERRAL POLICY
Karla Desormeaux THE EFFECTS OF STANDARDS-BASED MATHEMATICS CURRICULUMS ON STUDENT MATHEMATICAL ACHIEVEMENT
Pamela I. Dequeant THE EFFECTS OF STAKEHOLDERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND OF THE
& Julie P. Miers EFFECTIVENESS OF THE FOUR-DAY SCHOOL WEEK ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT, BEHAVIOR, AND ATTENDANCE
Christie Guidry THE EFFECTS OF PRE-KINDERGARTEN ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF FIRST GRADE AND THIRD GRADE STUDENTS
Jessica R. Hickman- SCHOOL UNIFORMS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS: ADVANTAGES AND
Zaunbrecher DISADVANTAGES
Dayna Hoffpauir A STUDY ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS USING THE COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION IN JEFFERSON DAVIS PARISH
James Hughes PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT POLICIES AND PROCEDURES IN COMPLEX ORGANIZATIONS
Velma Hypolite & THE EFFECTS OF OUT-OF-ZONE PLACEMENT ON ACADEMIC
Charlotte McCallum PROGRESS OF STUDENTS IN FOUR MIDDLE SCHOOLS OF THE CALCASIEU PARISH SCHOOL SYSTEM
Brenda Joubert THE EFFECTS OF THE FOUR-DAY SCHOOL WEEK ON TEACHER AND STUDENT ATTENDANCE
Loreete LaVergne PUBLIC SCHOOL EDUCATION COMPARED TO ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL EDUCATION AS MEASURED BY THE LOUISIANA EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT PROGRAM (LEAP) TEST
Audrette S. Metoyer THE EFFECTS OF CREATING POSITIVE READING ATTITUDES THROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF COMPUTERIZED MANAGEMENT PROGRAM “STAR”
Vicki Perkins THE EFFECTS OF BLOCK SCHEDULING ON STUDENTS ATTENDANCE AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AT DEQUENCY MIDDLE SCHOOL
Sharon Lynn THE EFFECTS OF ADDED AMERICAN HISTORY QUESTIONS IN
Phenice-Richard THE SEVENTH GRADE LOUISIANA HISTORY CLASS ON THE IOWA TESTS OF BASIC SKILLS
Daniel Prather THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY AND COMPUTER AIDED INSTRUCTION ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE AT CHURCH POINT HIGH SCHOOL
Carolyn Smith MATHEMATICALLY PROFICIENT-TEACHING AND LEARNING
Amy L. Veuleman A STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PLAN IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SETTING
2003
Sandra Bushnell A STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROFESSIONAL LEARNING COMMUNITIES IN ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AT OBERLIN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Shirlene Vidrine EFFECTS OF THE PERCEPTION OF LOUISIANA TEACHERS AND
Clark FORMER LOUISIANA TEACHERS TOWARD THE LOUISIANA FRENCH PROGRAMS OFFERED TO STUDENTS IN LOUISIANA
Christopher S. DEFINITION AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TEACHER AND
Fontenot ADMINISTRATOR PERCEPTIONS CONCERNING YEAR ROUND EDUCATION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
Marie Therese A STUDY ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE ACADIA PARISH
Janise TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAM IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE LOUISIANA TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAM
Sandy Matthews PERCEPTIONS OF THE IMPACT OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS: A SURVEY OF FAIRVIEW ELEMENTARY STUDENT, TEACHERS, AND PARENTS
Stephanie Rogers THE EFFECTS OF SCHOOL STARTING TIME AT SOUTH CAMERON HIGH SCHOOL
Wendy Stoute THE EFFECTS OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS ON BEHAVIOR, ATTENDANCE, AND ACHIEVEMENT AT J.H. WILLIAMS MIDDLE SCHOOL
Holly Vidrine A SURVEY OF EDUCATORS’ PERCEPTIONS CONCERNING THE IMPACT OF THE MENTORING PROGRAM IN ACADIA PARISH SCHOOLS
Bobbi Yancey A STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF THE ARTS AND THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT
2002
Alicia Caesar THE EFFECTS OF THE LOUISIANA EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT PROGRAM-ALTERNATE ASSESSMENT ON SPECIAL EDUCATION STUDENTS AT LAFAYETTE HIGH SCHOOL FROM 1999-2001
Marlene P. Courvelle EFFECTS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF INTECH INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES IN ACADIA PARISH, LOUISIANA
Maria Arlene TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE EFFECTS OF SCHOOL
Hobaugh UNIFORMS
Katie Jolivette THE EFFECT OF BLOCK SCHEDULING ON ACT SCORES AT CHURCH POINT HIGH SCHOOL
Shonda Mhire BEHAVIOR IN EARLY CHILDHOOD: LANGUAGE IMPLICATIONS
James Brad EFFECTIVENESS OF BLOCK SCHEDULING ON STUDENTS AND
Prudhomme ON ACT SCORES AT ERATH HIGH SCHOOL
Janet Ritchie TEACHING SPECIAL EDUCATION STUDENTS IN CALCASIEU PARISH: INCLUSION VERSUS SELF-CONTAINED
Lisa Serice A STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF WHOLE FACULTY STUDY GROUPS FOR PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
2001
Valeria Welsh STUDENTS’ OPINIONS ABOUT SCHOOL UNIFORMS: A SURVEY OF LAGRANGE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
Virginia Baudry A STUDY OF JEFFERSON DAVIS PARISH HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS’ AND PRINCIPALS’ PERCEPTIONS OF SELECTED FACTORS SINCE THE IMPLEMENTATION OF BLOCK SCHEDULING
Rico Guillory AN ANNOTATED REVIEW AND BACKGROUND OF CALCASIEU PARISH SCHOOL NAMES IN CALCASIEU PARISH SCHOOLS
Yasmin Malone DOES TEACHER-ASSISTED COMPUTER INSTRUCTION HAVE AN EFFECT ON CHILDREN’S ACHIEVEMENT?
Ocie P. McGuire THE EFFECTS OF BLOCK SCHEDULING ON STUDENTS AND TEACHERS IN CALCASIEU PARISH HIGH SCHOOLS AFTER ONE YEAR
Julie Hebert Ortego A COMPARISON OF STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN THE LANGUAGE ARTS CURRICULUM AT COLLEGE OAKS ELEMENTARY (FIRST THROUGH THIRD GRADES)
Christy Papania- STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES: PUBLIC SCHOOLS VERSUS
Jones PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS
James E. Ray CLOSING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS
Lawrence A. Rybicki PRE-TENURE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE EXTENT OF PREPARATION FOR THE CLASSROOM RECEIVED FROM UNDERGRADUATE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION COURSE WORK: A SURVEY OF CALCASIEU PARISH MIDDLE SCHOOLS
Debra A. Siebert A SURVEY OF EDUCATORS’ PERCEPTIONS CONCERNING THE IMPACT OF ACCOUNTABILITY ON TEACHING AND LEARNING IN ACADIA PARISH HIGH SCHOOLS
Deborah C. EVALUATING THE INCLUSION PROGRAM IN THE BEAUMONT
Washington INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT, TEXAS
Frank J. Wesley INTERNET USE BY ADULT LEARNERS: AN INVENTORY SCALE STUDY IN A LOCAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS COMPANY (US UNWIRED)
2000
Katherine D. A STUDY ON GENDER BIAS OF ELEMENTARY CLASROOM
Deshotel TEACHERS IN FIRST GRADE THROUGH SIXTH GRADE AT OBERLIN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Suzzanne P. Doucet PERCEPTIONS OF THE IMPACT OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS IN JEFFERSON DAVIS PARISH SCHOOLS: A SURVEY OF ELTON HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS, EDUCATORS, AND PARENTS
Randy Esters A COMPARISON OF LANGUAGE IOWA TESTS OF BASIC SKILLS SCORES RELATIVE TO EXPOSURE TO THE SHURLEY METHOD OF TEACHING ENGLISH IN ALLEN PARISH SCHOOLS
Tammy Fontenot SCHOOL-TO-WORK PROGRAM
Mitzi George RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LEARNING STYLES, PERSONALITY TRAIT PREFERENCE, AND SPIRITUAL STYLES
Michael B. Juneau A STUDY ON THE PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS IN CALCASIEU PARISH SCHOOL DISTRICT CONCERNING TEAMING AT THE ELEMENTARY LEVEL
Jennifer Kershaw HOW DO THE CHANGES IN RELATIONSHIPS OF IDEA 97 AFFECT VARIOUS MEMBERS OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM?
Dinah M. Robinson IN-SCHOOL SUSPENSION PROGRAMS: AN ALTERNATIVE TO FAILURE AND STUDENT DROPOUT
1999
Lee R. Crick IMPACT OF BLOCK SCHEDULING ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT
Linda Dahlquist A COMPARISON OF ACHIEVEMENT TEST SCORES FOR NON-PROMOTED STUDENTS ENROLLED IN OAK PARK MIDDLE SCHOOL
Cord Ensminger A STUDY OF ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS WITH MAIN FOCUS BEING THE BEAUREGARD ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL
Anita Freeland A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE PERCEPTIONS OF PRINCIPALS AND THE PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS ON COLLECTIVE BARGAINING IN VERMILLION PARISH
Keith Leger EFFECTS OF COMPUTER BASED EDUCATION ON LEARNING
E. Carleen Mahaffrey THE IMPACT OF PARTICIPATION IN A PUBLIC PRE-KINDERGARTEN PROGRAM ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF CHILDREN FROM FIRST THROUGH FOURTH GRADE
Louise Morris A STUDY TO DETERMINE IF VISION THERAPY IS AN EFFECTIVE METHOD IN TREATING DYSLEXIA
Ralph D. Thibodeaux ALTERNATIVE SCHEDULING: A PERSPECTIVE OF ERATH HIGH SCHOOL IN THE VERMILLION PARISH SCHOOL SYSTEM
1998
Barbara Barnickel POTENTIAL APPLICANTS FOR ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS FOR FOUR SOUTHWESTERN RURAL LOUISIANA PARISHES REQUIRING PRINCIPAL CERTIFICATION WITH DISCUSSION CONCERNING WOMEN AND MINORITIES
Tracey l. Crump PARENTAL ATTITUDES ON PARENT INVOLVEMENT
Tracey Reed Odom THE EFFECTS OF THE SPALDING METHOD OF PHONICS PROGRAM USED IN COMBINATION WITH A LITERATURE-BASED MACMILLAN BASAL READER AT KINDER ELEMENTARY SCHOOL FROM 1995-1998
1997
Richard A. Bagget THE INFLUENCE OF JOHN DEWEY ON EDUCATION
David Brian Fontenot A SURVEY OF THE USAGE OF THE PROPOSED STATE BENCHMARKS BY THE MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE TEACHERS OF CALCASIEU PARISH PUBLIC SCHOOL S
Clarice M. Goodly A REVIEW OF HIGH SCHOOL SENIORS’ ACT COMPOSITE SCORES IN THE HONORS CURRICULUM AND IN THE GENERAL CURRICULUM AT MAMOU HIGH SCHOOL FROM 1988-1997
Keye Hackett WOMEN CERTIFIED IN ADMINISTRATION: BARRIERS TO MOVING UP
Gary D. Kratzer A SURVEY OF EDUCATORS’ PERCEPTIONS CONCERNING THE IMPACT OF STARLAB PLANETARIUM ON TEACHING AND LEARNING
Jean Odom DIFFERENCE IN STANDARDIZED SCIENCE TEST SCORES IN THE OAKDALE, LOUISIANA SCHOOL
1996
Glenetta B. Shuey CHARTER SCHOOLS IN LOUISIANA
Mary-Lucille Andrus WORK-RELATED STRESS AMONG TITLE I AND NON-TITLE I K-3
Sims TEACHERS IN CALCASIEU PARISH PUBLIC SCHOOLS: CAUSES, MANIFESTATIONS, AND MANAGEMENT
Writing for Professional Publication in National Refereed Journals: A Session for Faculty
and Doctoral Students
University of California, Lost Angeles
June 2008
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University/The Texas A&M University System
1. Professional reasons for writing for publication - Promotion; tenure; recognition by peers; seeing name in print; making a contribution to written knowledge – advancing knowledge; clarifying thoughts; writing is a liberating experience; improving teacher; teaching aide; inform theory; inform practice; reflect on practice; invite help/criticism from colleagues; income/consulting opportunities.
2. Personal reasons for writing for publication - For fun and growth; to relax and “recreate”; personal satisfaction; improve communication skills; ego building; sharpen your inquiry skills; define and refine new ideas.
3. How real writers behave - Reading extensively and picking up vocabulary and sentence patterns; develop a sense of style from reading; reading aloud from paying attention to the sounds of words; writing and revising work that really means something to them; soliciting opinions from trusted, truthful colleagues; getting feedback from those who write; belonging to a learning community of writers.
4. Writer’s write for the following reasons - Communicate important ideas; to tell the stories of their professional lives and share their wisdom of practice; to connect with a wider audience; to make a contribution to their chosen field; to obtain tangible rewards (e.g., promotion, consulting work; to enlarge, extend, and organize thinking; to maintain and enhance learning about a topic of interest; to establish and participate in professional networks of like-minded individuals; to be heard and engage in the discourse of the professional community; to develop expertise and be recognized for specialized competence in their field.
5. How to get started - Write, write, write, write, and write; be doing things; be active and alive; have colleagues; cooperative; offer to read papers and manuscripts; offer to do book reviews; critique and edit; read attentive; be observant; be courteous; be helpful; use technology; do short but interesting pieces; do vignettes (to describe or sketch briefly); do anecdotes (short narrative, interesting amusing incident); write, write, write, write, write; have writers tolls: dictionary, thesaurus, style manuals, library access, publication directory; read critically; be busy doing; write, write, write, write, and write.
6. What will “sell” the editor on your work? What beginners often miss is that, after you have identified an area of interest, the best ideas are most likely to surface during writing rather than prior to writing.
7. Formula: Brilliant Ideas + Good Luck + Knowing the Right People = Publication - Many newcomers to the task of writing articles would produce a formula like this to explain success in writing and publishing in professional journal articles.
8. On scholarly work - Requires a high level of disciplined-related expertise; breaks new ground, is innovative; can be replicated or elaborated; provides documentation of results; is subjected to peer review; has significance or impact; pursuing these goals of scholarship and publication all begins with reading.
9. Reasons to write and publish journal articles - Affirmation from peers; potential influence on the field; staying current in the field; fulfilling the mentoring role.
10. Writing and publishing journal articles enables you to… Disseminate your ideas to a wider audience that typically is possible through conference presentations; establish a reputation in the field as an expert on a particular subject; master the content at a more sophisticated level, thereby enhancing your teaching; expand your teaching role to include anyone who happens to read your work (e.g., students who are conducting library research, scholars in other countries searching for information on the Internet); provide evidence of your competence as an author and persuade a publisher that you have potential as a book author.
11. Three basic types of articles: practical, review or theoretical, and
research - Practical Articles: Written for practitioners in the field. Purpose: To explore the practical implications of theory and research and improve professional practice. Format: Often centered on questions or issues of concern to those in the field. Remember, practical articles deal directly with the situation facing practitioners in the field. Often they take the “how to” approach. They keep readers abreast of new developments in the field.
Review or Theoretical Articles: Review theory and research. Purpose: To synthesize previously published research. Format: They are often organized around themes or trends in the research literature identified by the author. Remember, review or theoretical articles synthesize and critically evaluate materials that have already been published. They tend to be “think pieces” that urge readers to reflect on issues of some concern.
Research Articles: Reports of original research that include data collected by authors. Purpose: To provide sufficient information for other researchers to understand how they might replicate the study. Format: Typically follows a format such as background, review of literature, research, purpose, questions, subjects, methods, procedures, findings, results, recommendations, and conclusions.
12. Quantitative Studies - When writing quantitative research articles, think about reliability and validity and keep in mind the overarching goals of empirical research: generalization and replication. In empirical research, authors tend to say a little about a lot of participants (e.g., national survey). You will need to provide at least enough detail for readers to decide if your conclusions were warranted.
13. Qualitative Research - Qualitative studies are typically organized by headings such as background/problem statement, subjects, method/procedures, results, discussion, and recommendations and conclusions. Qualitative research more often takes the form of case studies, interviews, narrative research, and various types of enthnography. When writing qualitative research articles, think about key words and phrases from your participants that demonstrate how you arrived at patterns and themes from the mass of words you recorded. Keep in mind the goals of qualitative research: rich description of individuals or cases that have the power to illuminate larger issues. In qualitative research, you will tend to say a lot about a few individuals or cases. You will need to be credible – in qualitative research, this means you went deep and the sheer amount of information collected over time is compelling. Your readers need to be structure by the “slice of life” quality of your work that is captured in rich detail.
14. On writing books – Writing a book is like driving a car at night. You only see as far as your headlights go, but you can make the whole trip that way; after basic needs are met, human beings naturally strive for belongingness and the esteem of others they admire.
15. Four phases of book publishing: Fun, Drudgery, Torture, and Waiting - Fun: Talking about your idea, getting a proposal put together, signing the contract and going out to celebrate with your editor, colleagues, friends, family; Drudgery: Getting up (or staying up) in the middle of the night, responding to all of the criticism of reviewers, and struggling to write in addition to everything else you have to do or want to do; Torture: Proofreading for errors; responding to a copy editor’s questions about clarity, spelling, consistency, and missing references; helping with the advertising and promotion; Waiting: Watching for the publisher’s catalog, ripping open the carton to see the finished product (that always looks so pitifully small in comparison to the time expended); hoping for a respectable showing on the royalty statement, and wondering why on earth you made such a paltry pay off. Given the sobering view, why would anyone agree to write a book?
16. Some reasons to write a book – Authors learn from writing books; book authors can make a contribution o their fields; book authors are invited to speak at conferences and often paid to speak; book authors get to know other book authors.
17. Where does the dollar go after a book is published? Printing 10%; Distribution: 40-65%; Author Royalty 5-10%; Ongoing Promotion 10-15%; Overhead and Profit 20-35%.
18. What do editors and reviewers really want? Answer: Manuscripts they don’t have to edit.
19. Earning approval from reviewers and editors - Principle 1: Make your manuscript irresistible to reviewers and editors. Write and think clearly. The chief difference between good writing and better writing is the number of hesitations the reader experiences as they read. Reviewers expect writing to flow so that they can read it smoothly, without reading over or puzzling over what the writer intends. The number one thing that editors and reviewers respond is the quality of the writing and thinking on the printed page. Become familiar with the publishing outlet. Know the journal and its readership. Respect the publisher’s role. Most reviewers for scholarly journals are published authors themselves. They are well acquainted with the pains and pleasures of writing. Reviewers and editors are neither secretaries nor public servants. They are required to render a decision of yes, no, or maybe. They are not even obligated, strictly speaking, to say why. Principle 2: Don’t waste editors’ and reviewers’ time. What follows are the most common ways authors waste an editor’s time: a) Failing to do the necessary homework; b) Refusing to revise; c) Protesting fair appraisals of work; d) Being impatient. Principle 3: Accept responsibility for finding a suitable publishing outlet. The typical journal takes about 3 months to review a manuscript. Multiple submissions – sending the same article to different journals at the same time are not acceptable. Principle 4: Grow up about criticism. One way to defuse the explosive potential of criticism from editorial boards is to conduct an in-house edit of any materials you write before you submit it. Those who can be of the greatest assistance are intelligent and outspoken people, including members of the following groups: Well-read individuals outside your field or who are novices in your field. They can offer a check on clarity. Content experts who have in-depth knowledge of your subject. They can offer a check on accuracy. Readers of the outlet you seek to publish. They are members of the intended audience who can offer an opinion on whether your work is well suited for the particular publication. Authors and editors who are sticklers for details and have mastered the style sheet (e.g., American Psychological Association Style) and format of published works. Principle 5: Understand the evaluation criteria. Editors are knowledgeable about writing in ways that most authors are not. The process of evaluating a manuscript’s relative worth is fundamental to peer - review. Principle 6: Volunteer to become a reviewer. Peer reviewing is worth doing, for the things you learn about yourself as a writer. Every time you provide a thoughtful response to another’s work, whether the manuscript is publishable or not, you gain additional insight into organizing manuscripts. Reviewing also will enable you to glimpse the world of publishing from the inside out as you work with an editor. Reviewers usually are chosen on the basis of commitment to the aims and philosophy of the organization; specialized credentials, competence, and reputation in the field; demonstrated skills as an author/editor; consistency in providing a prompt review; willingness to provide constructive feedback. Remember, a bad section of writing in a manuscript is like a log in the middle of your living room. If you leave it there, you will have to keep stumbling over it or walking around it. You could wait for it to decompose but it is far more efficient to chop it into firewood or haul it outside as soon as you notice it. Principle 7: Use editorial feedback to improve the work. When editors first skim through your article, they tend to seek affirmative answers to three questions related to the accuracy, creativity, and significance of the article – at their simplest, these questions are: Is it true? Is it new? Is it important? Principle 8: Used editorial feedback to improve the work. When a manuscript is review, three basic decisions are possible: ACCEPTANCE – The manuscript requires only minimal revisions, changes that can be made during the normal editorial process. CONDITIONAL ACCEPTANCE – The manuscript has merit but requires more substantial revision. REJECTION – An outright rejection is often signaled by a form letter. Principle 9: Regard reviewers and editors as allies. The best editors know how to balance priorities and manage people. The editor is expected to consider the quality of the product and the performance of the workers while remaining accountable to those who hold the purse strings. Remember, editors like nothing better than identifying good writers who will be a source of high-quality manuscripts. When you communicate with editors, strive to be professional and business-like. Politeness counts, persistence pays, listening skills are important, and learn to take criticism well. Follow directions. Match the style of work to the journal, but conservative (editors will be), reviewers disagree, and editors make mistakes. Principle 10: Joseph Pulitzer advised writers to, “Put it before them briefly so they will read it, clearly so they will appreciate it, picturesquely so they remember it, and, above all, accurately so they will be guided by its light.”
20. What to remember about bad writing - It takes little effort.
21. How to get fired as a reviewer - Lose the manuscript or let it sit on your desk; suggest that the author include something that already appears in the manuscript; criticize the author for making errors, then write a review that contains mistakes; go off on a tangent and write a two-page response to one sentence while ignoring the rest of the manuscript; pass the manuscript on to someone else to review or quote from it prior to publication without permission; write a treatise on how you would have written the article or book; treat anonymous peer review as a way to punish with impunity.
22. Publish or perish or teach or impeach - You become a better teacher from your writing. You become a better writer from writing.
23. I’ve been rejected many times - should I give up? Rejection is an inescapable part of writing; rejection should not be taken as an indication that you are unsuited to the writing life; make a writing appointment with yourself that will not be cancelled except in a real emergency; where rejections are concerned, remember, keep trying, no matter what, try again, fail gain, and fail better
24. In writing, how you read is important - A civilian readers for entertainment, information, solace. A writer reads for all these, and for craft and technique and tricks of the trade. A writer reads critically, noting what works and what does not work. A writer is always watching, even when he’s reading.
25. How teachable is writing? Writing can be taught. The person has to have motivation to write and take on the task with persistence. Willingness to work at it over a period of time until something like a pattern of success has been built.
26. “I can’t seem to tell how my writing is going while I am doing it. Can you help? Writing is usually a matter of feeling your way, line by line and page by page. Much of the time you simply will not know whether something will work until after you have written it. Remember, try out many different styles and combinations; then, select the best one for yourself.
27. Remember your purpose in writing - Your purpose in writing, even when you are writing as an expert on a topic, is not to show off but to share your ideas in a spirit of generosity.
28. What differentiates ordinary writing from writing with style - Effective writing, academic or otherwise, has a certain unpredictability and element of surprise. To write with style, first be “a good date for your reader.” Create something of interest and value. Get below the surface which is really the writer’s job. Never write a bad sentence if you can help it.
29. It must get somewhat easier to write; otherwise, how would some authors become so prolific? Writers are comparable to athletes in training. At first, it may seem torturous to spend an hour composing, but, with practice and encouragement, you will learn to tolerate longer stints of writing. No matter how well conditioned you may be, you will always break a sweat. A trained writer has built up the endurance to take on more demanding writing tasks and complete them. But whether you are a marathon writer or a marathon runner, the measure of your success is doing more, not doing less. Another distinction between the more or less experienced is the determination and confidence to go the distance.
30. If writing for publication does not prove to be lucrative, why bother? Think about the things that you have written already. How did the act of writing shape your ideas? Creative work is worthwhile because it is good for your mind in the same way that being healthy is good for your body. With every sentence you write, you have learned something. It has done you good. It has stretched your understanding. Show respect for your writing. It is about what the readers should know. If this puts a strain on a professional relationship, then so be it.
31. Why creative work is worthwhile - Because it offers you freedom.
32. Show respect for your writing - It is about what the readers should know. If this puts a strain on a professional relationship, then so be it.
33. “Why I Write” (Orwell) - Sheer egoism, aesthetic enthusiasm, historical impulse, and political purpose.
34. What really makes an academic write? If it is only a necessity of the education profession, no wonder one’s fingers get tired. No human activity can sap the strength from body and life from spirit as much as writing in which one does not believe.
35. The Writer’s Essential Tools – Words and the power to face unpleasant facts.
36. No human activity can sap the strength from body and life from spirit as much as writing in which one doesn’t believe. It should be an exhilarating thought for anyone who sits before the keyboard day after day, the idea that writing is a way of continuing to be. And writing is what scholars do. There are worse ways to spend a life than climbing your own mountain.
37. “Because it was there” (Edmund Hillary) - With this comment he supplied generations with a ready-made and unanswerable defense for any new undertaking even writing.
38. Why we write - Nothing really explains why we write, but it’s a sure thing that we try to put words together because of who each of us is.
39. Climbing Your Own Mountain – Writers are a minority of gifted, willful people who are determined to live their own lives to the end, and writers belong in this class.
40. Be yourself - Have fun writing. “Chance favors those in motion.” (Zen)
References
Bernstein, J. (1998). How and why. In L. Gutkind (Ed.), The essayist at work: Profiles of creative nonfiction writers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Brande, D. (1981/1934). Becoming a writer. New York: Tarcher/Putnam.
Edelstein, S. (1999). 100 things every writer needs to know. New York: Perigree.
Jalongo, M.R., (2002). Writing for publication: A practical guide for educators. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers, Incorporated.
Kerr, M.E. (1998). Blood on the forehead: What I know about writing. New York: Harper-Collins.
King, S. (2000). On writing: A memoir of the craft. New York: Scribner.
Kritsonis, W.A., & Griffith, K.G. (2007). On writing well for professional publication in national refereed journals in education. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4(Summer). Retrieved March 15, 2008, from http://dept.lamar.edu/lustudentjnl/
Lamb, B. (1997). Booknotes. New York: Times.
National Book Award Authors (1995). The writing life. New York: Random House.
Provost, G. (1985). 100 ways to improve your writing. New York: Mentor/New American Library.
Safire W., & Safir, L. (Eds.) (1994). Good advice on writing. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Steard, J.B. (1938). Follow the story: How to write successful nonfiction. New York: Touchstone/Simon & Schuster.
Ueland, B. (1987/1938). If you want to write: A book about art, independence and spirit. St. Paul, MN: Graywolf Press.
Winokur, J. (1999). Advice to writers. New York: Vintage Books.
Zinsser, W. (1998). On writing well (6th ed.). New York: Harper Perennial.
Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, National FORUM Journals, Houston, Texas www.nationalforum.com
Writing for Professional Publication in National Refereed Journals
A Session for Faculty and Doctoral Students
University of Washington
Graduate Students, Doctoral Studies
June 2008
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University/The Texas A&M University System
1. Professional reasons for writing for publication
2. Personal reasons for writing for publication
3. How real writers behave
4. Writer’s write for the following reasons
5. How to get started
6. What will “sell” the editor on your work?
7. Formula: Brilliant Ideas + Good Luck + Knowing the Right People = Publication
8. On scholarly work
9. Reasons to write and publish journal articles
10. Writing and publishing journal articles enables you to…
11. Three basic types of articles: practical – review or theoretical – research
12. Quantitative Studies
13. Qualitative Research
14. On writing books
15. Four phases of book publishing (Fun – Drudgery – Torture – Waiting)
16. Some reasons to write a book
17. Where does the dollar go after a book is published?
18. What do editors and reviewers really want?
19. Earning approval from editors and reviewers
20. What to remember about bad writing
21. How to get fired as a reviewer
22. Publish or perish or teach or impeach
23. I’ve been rejected many times – should I give up?
24. In writing, how you read is important
25. How teachable is writing?
26. “I can’t seem to tell how my writing is going while I am doing it. Can you help?
27. Remember your purpose in writing
28. What differentiates ordinary writing from writing with style
29. It must get somewhat easier to write, otherwise, how would some authors become so prolific?
30. If writing for publication does not prove to be lucrative, why bother?
31. Why creative work is worthwhile
32. Show respect for your writing. It is about what the readers should know. If this puts a strain on a professional relationship, then so be it.
33. “Why I Write” (Orwell) Sheer egoism, aesthetic enthusiasm, historical impulse, and political purpose.
34. What really makes an academic write?
35. The Writer’s Essential Tools – words and the power to face unpleasant facts.
36. No human activity can sap the strength from body and life from spirit as much as writing in which one doesn’t believe.
37. “Because it was there.” Edmund Hillary. And with this comment he supplied generations with a ready-made and unanswerable defense for any new undertaking even writing.
38. Why we write.
39. Climbing Your Own Mountain
40. Be yourself. Have fun writing.
Please list any other topics you want Dr. Kritsonis to discuss.
281-550-5700 Home; Cell: 832-483-7889 – williamkritsonis@yahoo.com
Effective Teaching in the Elementary School
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Mary Ann Springs
Price: $12.00 United States; $15.00 Canada; 20.00 All Others
(Add $3.00 for shipping, handling, and postage)
To order, make payment to National FORUM Journals and send to:
National FORUM Journals
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Published by
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Distributed by National FORUM Journals
Published in the United States of America
ISBN 977-1-5130-5741-0 Paper
Attorney General Greg Abbott – A Model of Success and Determination
Attorney General Greg Abbott was the commencement speaker on Saturday, May 10th at Prairie View A&M University. As most people know, Greg Abbott is in a wheelchair. All of us attending the graduating ceremony were captivated by his remarks, professionalism, and physical effort. This was the largest graduating class, over 800, in the history of PVAMU, which was founded in 1868.
Greg Abbott greeted each of our graduates with a radiating smile, personal handshake, and called each graduate by their first name. I know this as a fact because I sat in the front row, as one of my students received her doctorate at the ceremony. It was inspiring to see Attorney General Abbott’s physical effort. He moved his wheelchair forward with three arm motions to shake the hand of each graduate, and then moved backwards with the same motions to allow the graduate to retreat from the platform. If my calculations are somewhat accurate, Mr. Abbott made approximately 4,800 movements in his wheelchair, along with personally congratulating each of the 800 graduates by their first names.
Attorney General Abbott displayed outstanding listening skills by recalling each graduate’s name and exhibited tremendous physical endurance. His commencement address will be remembered by all of us in attendance for the rest of our lives.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Distinguished Alumnus
Central Washington University
College of Education and Professional Studies
Ellensburg, Washington
Doctoral Dissertation Advising: Keys to Improvement of Completion Rates
William Allan Kritsonis
Professor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
The Texas A&M University System
Distinguished Alumnus
Central Washington University
College of Education and Professional Studies
Invited Guest Lecturer
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, England
John I. Goodlad
Director
Center for Educational Renewal
University of Washington
Seattle, Washington
Robert L. Marshall
Professor
Doctoral Program
Western Illinois University
Invited Guest Lecturer Macomb, Illinois
Invited Guest Lecturer
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, England
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this article is to provide suggestions for doctoral dissertation advisors. The content was developed from discussions with colleagues, doctoral candidates, recipients of advanced degrees, and reviewing literature pertaining to doctoral studies. This article provides some general guidelines and practical functions for doctoral dissertation advisors.
Introduction
T
hose who succeed in academic scholastic writing at the advanced levels typically write an excellent doctoral dissertation. In writing a dissertation, there appears to be an enjoyment of the constant flowing of ideas. At the doctoral level, mentors are critically important in helping their students complete the dissertation, and later in getting graduates published at the national level in refereed, juried, peer-reviewed scholarly journals.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to establish some basic functions of the doctoral dissertation advisor. Hopefully, the suggestions will help others in the doctoral advisement process.
Basic Functions of the Doctoral Dissertation Advisor
The following suggestions are functions of a doctoral dissertation advisor:
1. Keep a folder for each doctoral student. This will give you the opportunity to review previous and current work completed by the student. It will give you the opportunity to review your own comments. Reviewing the folder periodically enables you to firmly grasp the student’s concerns with conducting research.
2. Answer all email correspondence with doctoral students in a timely manner. Keep track of emails that you send and other correspondence. Make certain that you communicate to students frequently. Not communicating with doctoral students is condescending and shows disrespect.
3. Establish a personal, but professional relationship with your doctoral student advisees. Being a mentor is a very serious responsibility. See each of your students first as people. They have goals and aspirations just as you do.
4. Develop your own style in dissertation advising. The best way to develop your own style is simply by doing it.
5. Be positive in working with doctoral students on their dissertation. Make certain to provide feedback that is constructive and useful. Always strive to be positive and enthusiastic in working with doctoral students on their dissertations. Be cheerful, optimistic, and helpful. Direct advisees to relevant sources of information.
6. Serve as the key person in guiding the production of an acceptable high quality dissertation.
7. The chair is the leader of the committee and its liaison with the student. Assume the primary responsibility of assuring that the dissertation committee works effectively as a collaborative team.
8. Expectations of both service to the student and service to the academic discipline and professional field
9. Continually monitor students’ progress with the dissertation from start to finish
10. Know your own strengths, attributes, weaknesses, counter productive tendencies and limitations.
11. Do you homework in working with each advisee. Make certain to study the dissertation topic your advisee is interested in developing.
12. Think about your own dissertation experience. Avoid any mistakes that were made. Incorporate effective strategies that work.
13. Encourage advisees to document what they want to do as a dissertation topic.
14. Strive to make a difference as an advisor to your advisee. Model appropriate behavior.
15. Make your presence matter in the life of the doctoral student.
16. Accept the fact you know more about writing a dissertation than your advisee. A high quality job of directing is an expectation.
17. As an advisor, recognize the time when the dissertation topic must be revised or changed. Do not be afraid to tell an advisee when they are wasting time on something that will not work or is not relevant.
18. Be ready to suggest to your advisee the need to shift the research time to other areas of the dissertation if you see the advisee bog down.
19. Do not hesitate to tell the advisee to put more effort into the dissertation.
20. Make certain to realize as an advisor there are many different strategies for writing a doctoral dissertation.
21. Encourage doctoral students to talk with others who are writing their dissertation. They often can provide practical feedback and encouragement.
22. Encourage doctoral students to communicate with others in different colleges or departments who are writing their dissertation.
23. Encourage advisees to explore ideas beyond your suggestions.
24. Tell your advisees how you like to work with them. If you need to work from an outline – tell the advisee. Let advisees know your own work habits.
25. Remember, it is the advisee’s dissertation – not yours. They must do the work.
26. If you are an inexperienced dissertation advisor, try to work with a colleague who has successful experience. As an advisor, you are there to help. Help as much as you possibly can.
27. Be supportive of the advisee’s work. Use specific examples in telling advisees their work is good or not acceptable. Point out where the work needs improvement.
28. Make certain you develop the habit of getting things back to students in a timely manner; hopefully, within five - ten business days. Through being diligent in your efforts, the advisee will keep focused. Read dissertation chapters at your earliest convenience. Do not let too much time elapse. Remember, you are a busy person and so is your advisee. Establish timelines with the advisee and meet them.
29. Give your doctoral students the responsibility of meeting deadlines.
30. Be accessible to the student. Keep appointments with students and be present at all committee meetings that involve working with students and dissertations.
31. Encourage students to contact you if you have taken too long to respond to them.
32. As an advisor, give lots of suggestions. Be specific, exact, concise, detailed, and comprehensive in all aspects of your advising.
33. Encourage your doctoral students to talk with their committee members throughout the entire process. Other committee members might suggest different approaches or a new study altogether. When this happens, meet with the advisee. Perhaps you will agree or disagree. Keep the dialogue open and positive.
34. It is your duty to encourage your advisees to do the work that must be done to have a quality and professionally satisfying dissertation.
35. Be available. If this means meeting with a doctoral student at a location other than the university, do it. Some advisees need a lot of attention, guidance, and direction. Others are self-directive. Be flexible and adaptable.
36. The advisee should not hear major changes for the first time at the proposal defense.
37. In giving guidance to your advisees, constantly prepare them for their proposal defense and ultimately defending their dissertation. This will keep them focused.
38. Do not take on the job of advisor if you do not intend to make it a priority. Dissertation advisement takes an enormous amount of time and commitment. During the entire process, it will be necessary for you to meet with the other members of the dissertation committee to discuss the progress of the doctoral student.
39. You want your students to tell you “I like the way you are always available, keep up the good work.”
40. The doctoral student and advisor should consult someone other than the student’s committee members for special advising or expertise.
41. Help your advisee when there is a need to clarify the dissertation topic.
42. Try to obtain adequate funding for your advisee’s research.
43. Link students with similar dissertation topics together.
44. During the advisement process, dissertation advisors should mentor students by helping them to prepare manuscripts for publication in national, refereed, peer reviewed journals.
45. Consider or recommend doctoral students for university responsibilities, such as facilitating classes when professors are unavailable, and giving examinations at distance learning facilities. This gives them experiences in higher education.
46. Involve doctoral students with coordinating orientation sessions for new students. Assign experienced students in the program as mentors to incoming students. Develop a social student group with regular meeting times.
47. As a dissertation advisor, develop an approval form for both the proposal and dissertation defense that must be signed by all committee members prior to scheduling a formal meeting. By doing so, the committee members agree the student is ready to present and defend.
48. Prompt and encourage students regularly to complete the dissertation and the program in a timely manner. Assist the student with a graphic timeline and make it your mission in life to see that your advisees become completers.
49. Facilitate the use of related resources of the university at large.
50. Again…Be Available to the Student!
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, the purpose of this article was to establish some general duties of a dissertation advisor. There are numerous responsibilities of a dissertation advisor and these are only a few. In addition, our intention was to provide some general guidelines for thoughtful consideration. Perhaps, you can add to the list give below.
FOCUS on Colleges, Universities, and Schools
VOLUME 2 NUMBER 1, 2008
Functions of the Doctoral Dissertation Advisor
John I. Goodlad
Center for Educational Renewal
University of Washington
Seattle, Washington
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
The Texas A&M University System
Prairie View, Texas
Invited Visiting Lecturer
Oxford Round Table
Oriel College in the University of Oxford
Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus
Central Washington University
College of Education and Professional Studies
Ellensburg, Washington
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this article is to provide suggestions for doctoral dissertation advisors. The content was developed from discussions with colleagues, doctoral candidates, recipients of advanced degrees, and reviewing literature pertaining to doctoral studies. This article provides some general guidelines and practical functions for doctoral dissertation advisors.
Introduction
Those who succeed in academic scholastic writing at the advanced levels typically write an excellent doctoral dissertation. In writing a dissertation, there appears to be an enjoyment of the constant flowing of ideas. At the doctoral level, mentors are critically important in helping their students complete the dissertation, and later in getting graduates published at the national level in refereed, juried, peer-reviewed scholarly journals.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to establish some basic functions of the doctoral dissertation advisor. Hopefully, the suggestions will help others in the doctoral advisement process.
Basic Functions of the Doctoral Dissertation Advisor
The following suggestions are functions of a doctoral dissertation advisor:
1. Keep a folder for each doctoral student. This will give you the opportunity to review previous and current work completed by the student. It will give you the opportunity to review your own comments. Reviewing the folder periodically enables you to firmly grasp the student’s concerns with conducting research.
2. Keep track of emails that you send and other correspondence. Make certain that you communicate to students frequently. Not communicating with doctoral students is condescending and shows disrespect.
3. Establish a personal, but professional relationship with your doctoral student advisees. Being a mentor is a very serious responsibility. See each of your students first as people. They have goals and aspirations just as you do.
4. Develop your own style in dissertation advising. The best way to develop your own style is simply by doing it.
5. Be positive in working with doctoral students on their dissertation. Make certain to provide feedback that is constructive and useful. Always strive to be positive and enthusiastic in working with doctoral students on their dissertations. Be cheerful, optimistic, and helpful. Direct advisees to relevant sources of information.
6. Know your strengths, attributes, weaknesses, and limitations.
7. Do you homework in working with each advisee. Make certain to study the dissertation topic your advisee is interested in developing.
8. Think about your own dissertation experience. Avoid any mistakes that were made. Incorporate effective strategies that work.
9. Encourage advisees to document what they want to do as a dissertation topic.
10. Strive to make a difference as an advisor to your advisee. Model appropriate behavior.
11. Make your presence matter in the life of the doctoral student.
12. Accept the responsibility of doing a good job.
13. Accept the fact you know more about writing a dissertation than your advisee.
14. As an advisor, recognize the time when the dissertation topic must be revised or changed. Do not be afraid to tell an advisee when they are wasting time on something that will not work or is not relevant.
15. Be ready to suggest to your advisee the need to shift the research time to other areas of the dissertation if you see the advisee bog down.
16. Do not hesitate to tell the advisee to put more effort into the dissertation.
17. Make certain to realize as an advisor there are many different strategies for writing a doctoral dissertation.
18. Encourage doctoral students to talk with others who are writing their dissertation. They often can provide practical feedback and encouragement.
19. Encourage doctoral students to communicate with others in different colleges or departments who are writing their dissertation.
20. Encourage advisees to explore ideas beyond your suggestions.
21. Tell your advisees how you like to work with them. If you need to work from an outline – tell the advisee. Let advisees know your own work habits.
22. Remember, it is the advisee’s dissertation – not yours. They must do the work.
23. If you are an inexperienced dissertation advisor, try to work with a colleague who has successful experience. As an advisor, you are there to help. Help as much as you possibly can.
24. Be supportive of the advisee’s work. Use specific examples in telling advisees their work is good or not acceptable. Point out where the work needs improvement.
25. Make certain you develop the habit of getting things back to students in a timely manner; hopefully, within five - ten business days. Through being diligent in your efforts, the advisee will keep focused. Read dissertation chapters at your earliest convenience. Do not let too much time elapse. Remember, you are a busy person and so is your advisee. Establish timelines with the advisee and meet them.
26. Give your doctoral students the responsibility of meeting deadlines.
27. Encourage students to contact you if you have taken too long to respond to them.
28. As an advisor, give lots of suggestions. Be specific, exact, concise, detailed, and comprehensive in all aspects of your advising.
29. Encourage your doctoral students to talk with their committee members throughout the entire process. Other committee members might suggest different approaches or a new study altogether. When this happens, meet with the advisee. Perhaps you will agree or disagree. Keep the dialogue open and positive.
30. It is your duty to encourage your advisees to do the work that must be done to have a quality and professionally satisfying dissertation.
31. Be available. If this means meeting with a doctoral student at a location other than the university, do it. Some advisees need a lot of attention, guidance, and direction. Others are self-directive. Be flexible and adaptable.
32. The advisee should not hear major changes for the first time at the proposal defense.
33. In giving guidance to your advisees, constantly prepare them for their proposal defense and ultimately defending their dissertation. This will keep them focused.
34. Do not take on the job of advisor if you do not intend to make it a priority. Dissertation advisement takes an enormous amount of time and commitment. During the entire process, it will be necessary for you to meet with the other members of the dissertation committee to discuss the progress of the doctoral student.
35. You want your students to tell you “I like the way you are always available, keep up the good work.”
36. The doctoral student and advisor should consult someone other than the student’s committee members for special advising or expertise.
37. Help your advisee when there is a need to clarify the dissertation topic.
38. Try to obtain adequate funding for your advisee’s research.
39. Link students with similar dissertation topics together.
40. During the advisement process, dissertation advisors should mentor students by helping them to prepare manuscripts for publication in national, refereed, peer reviewed journals.
41. Consider or recommend doctoral students for university responsibilities, such as facilitating classes when professors are unavailable, and giving examinations at distance learning facilities. This gives them experiences in higher education.
42. Involve doctoral students with coordinating orientation sessions for new students.
43. As a dissertation advisor, develop an approval form for both the proposal and dissertation defense that must be signed by all committee members prior to scheduling a formal meeting. By doing so, the committee members agree the student is ready to present and defend.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, the purpose of this article was to establish some general functions of a dissertation advisor. There are numerous functions of a dissertation advisor and these are only a few. In addition, my intention was to provide some general guidelines for thoughtful consideration. Perhaps, you can add to the list.
References
Dave, R. (2007 December). Quality time with your dissertation. Retrieved December 4,
2007, from the Association for Support of Graduate Students Website: http://www.asgs.org/
Eastwood, J.S. (2000). Comprehensive editing. Retrieved December 2, 2007, from
www.jeastwood.com
Jensen, S. (2000). Dissertation news. Retrieved December 3, 2007, from
http://www.dissertationdoctor.com
________________________________________________________________________
Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, National FORUM Journals, Houston, Texas www.nationalforum.com
Educational and Supervisory Leadership ONLINE
Fall 2008
Now and Again: How Ayn Rand’s Objectivist Theory Shapes Present-Day Ethical Controversies
Misti M. Morgan
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A & M University
Assistant Principal
Houston Independent School District
Houston, Texas
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Prairie View, Texas
Visiting Lecturer
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus
Central Washington University
College of Educational and Professional Studies
________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
In this sensitive time of war, poverty, and crisis, Ayn Rand reaches across the years to offer a solution so fundamental and yet extremely controversial: save yourself. True to her Objectivist ideals, Ayn Rand examines the romantic ideals of self-sacrifice and individualism in the pursuit of man’s highest moral purpose, the pursuit of his own happiness.
________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
War is hell. Ayn Rand knew this best, as the war of ideas and philosophies pushed her constantly to the front of the firing line. Often, Rand’s Objectivist theory was met with skepticism by the masses, forcing her on the defensive of her very personal views. Yet Rand’s conviction to her ideals alone sets her apart from a crowd of many modern-day philosophers, and in her collection of essays in The Virtue of Selfishness (1964), she plainly outlines her beliefs about how we as individuals should govern ourselves in times of sacrifice, crisis, and change. While Ayn Rand makes almost premonitory warnings about the consequences of sacrifice and selflessness, it is my opinion that her solution to racism is unfortunately shortsighted and wholly unrealized some forty years later. Nevertheless, in these times we live in where indecision and uncertainty rule, one has to give tremendous credit to Rand for her firm sense of beliefs, and her unwavering devotion to her ideals.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to examine Ayn Rand’s Objectivist philosophy against present-day ethical controversies of altruism, sacrifice, and racism. Current events serve as a litmus test for Rand’s convictions, determining if a philosophy written over three decades ago is still applicable to present-day conflicts.
In Case of Emergency, Check Your Premises
In The Ethics of Emergencies, Ayn Rand reiterates her rejection of altruism, defining sacrifice as “the surrender of a greater value for the sake of a lesser one or of a nonvalue” (Rand, 1964, p.50). In her opinion, any man who would freely give his life in place of another has no real regard for his own. Rand’s philosophy triggered a thought that had recently taken root in my consciousness. I watched this past week as President George W. Bush openly wiped away tears at a posthumous Medal of Honor ceremony for a fallen war hero. Navy SEAL Petty Officer Michael Monsoor was killed in Iraq in September of 2006 when he fell on a grenade to save his comrades during insurgent fighting in Ramadi. Monsoor was praised throughout the ceremony for his selflessness during a time of crisis. Mike and two teammates had taken position on the outcropping of a rooftop when an insurgent grenade bounced of Mike’s chest and landed on the roof. Mike had a clear chance to escape, but he realized that the other two SEALs did not. In that terrible moment, he had two options – to save himself, or to save his friends. For Mike, this was no choice at all. He threw himself onto the grenade, and absorbed the blast with his body. One of the survivors put it this way, “Mikey looked death in the face that day and said, ‘You cannot take my brothers. I will go in their stead” (Duck, 2008, p. 2).
While I pondered what must have been a scene wrought with emotion, I couldn’t help but step inside Ms. Rand’s shoes and see this event as she might have – as a tremendous waste of life. To Rand, Petty Officer Monsoor needlessly sacrificed himself, thereby forfeiting the Objectivist ethic that his “life’s highest moral purpose” is the achievement of his own happiness (Rand, 1964, p. 51). Rand even outlines the reason why a person would sacrifice him or herself so willingly – in summary it is due to a lack of self esteem on the part of the willing. While I may not support the argument that self esteem propelled Petty Officer Monsoor to his death, I do agree with Rand to the extent that an underlying psychological crisis may have caused Monsoor to respond so “heroically”. The horrors of war are real, and none would know that better than the soldiers themselves. For those who are fighting the battle, I can only imagine that the war seems as depressing and as endless as a season of night. I believe that it is entirely plausible that when faced with the choice of a future riddled with post-traumatic stress disorder or death, Petty Officer Monsoor and countless other dead soldiers chose the relief that only death could bring from such an insidious war.
Rand further expounds on the appropriateness of sacrifice in times of emergency only: “It is on the ground of that generalized good will and respect for the value of human life that one helps strangers in an emergency—and only in an emergency” (Rand, 1964, p. 54). Rand defines an emergency as “an unchosen, unexpected event, limited in time, that creates conditions under which human survival is impossible” (Rand, 1964, p. 54). Hurricane Katrina and its decimation of the Gulf Coast, specifically New Orleans, came to mind as an “emergency sacrifice”. While many died, more lives would have been lost had the government not initiated a massive, albeit delayed, response. Thousands of Katrina evacuees were displaced and relocated; they were given provisions and an opportunity to return to a semblance of their former lives. Yet as the months after Katrina passed, the milk of human kindness began to evaporate amidst a wave of Katrina survivor-related violence, unemployment, and in the minds of many, ingratitude towards the helping hand that had been previously extended. Rand makes a clear, and in my opinion, a precise distinction between a metaphysical emergency and a normal risk of existence.
It is only in emergency situations that one should volunteer to help strangers, if it is in one’s power. For instance, a man who values human life and is caught in a shipwreck, should help to save his fellow passengers, but this does not mean that after they all reach shore, he should devote his efforts to saving his fellow passengers from poverty, ignorance, neurosis or whatever troubles they might have. (Rand, 1964, p. 55)
What many volunteers failed to take into account in the aftermath of Katrina was that many of the victims lived in abject conditions prior to the storm (residents who were not living in abject conditions before the storm were more able to right themselves after Katrina). By offering the displaced new homes, jobs, and financial assistance, these self-sacrificing do-gooders were establishing a dependency that would eventually result in a thankless attitude of entitlement. It is difficult to speculate on how an historic event could have been altered, but it is my sincere belief that the Katrina experiment was a failure due in large part to the lack of understanding that Rand projected: that help should be given in an emergency only, and that it should be withdrawn once the crisis has passed and before a social dependency is established.
The Katrina experience returned another long-standing issue to the forefront – the question of the United States’ overinvestment in foreign aid. The “guns or butter” debated fueled some of the post-Katrina backlash, insisting that the United States could have more readily responded to the disaster if our resources and manpower had not already been stretched in Iraq, Afghanistan, and other countries. As Rand succinctly states, “The principle that one should help men in an emergency cannot be extended to regard all human suffering as an emergency and to turn the misfortune of some into a first mortgage on the lives of others” (Rand, 1964, p. 55). Given the vast atrocities of our own nation; poverty, crime, joblessness, illiteracy, homelessness, and other plights, it is improbable that we as a nation should invest so much of ourselves with such a small return on investment; many of the countries which the United States occupies or assists could not or would not assist us if we suddenly became the needy. Rand’s position on emergency assistance is absolute – man should never subordinate the moral purpose of his life to the “welfare of others”(Rand, 1964, p. 56) and given the dire consequences for Petty Officer Monsoor and the Katrina controversy, I am inclined to agree.
On Racism – Forgetting February
Ayn Rand abhors racism, associating it with the much-maligned collectivism to which she is also opposed. In particular, Rand indicts modern racists for attempting “to prove the superiority or inferiority of a given race by the historical achievements of some of its members” (Rand, 1964, p. 148). This opinion formed a profound question in my mind that subsequently initiated a personal debate – if I am to accept Rand’s philosophy, then I as an African-American woman should reject the notion of Black History Month, a brief celebration of our ancestral accomplishments. While initially stupefied by Rand’s suggestion, I do find validity in her argument – as individualists, it is not our right as a race to stake our claim to the accomplishments of others. Instead, we should focus more on blazing our own trail as individuals, without regard for the color of our skin or for the goal of becoming a credit to our race. I am even more convinced of Rand’s position when I consider the treatment by my fellow African-Americans of Black History Month. The significance seems to be lost on the present generation. The spirit of entrepreneurship and creativity that drove many of our black progenitors to be the individuals that they were has been replaced with a reverence for following some of the most destructive trends of today: “gansta” mentality and a dereliction of personal responsibility. Though I am not ready to renounce Black History Month altogether, I do see relevance in Rand’s argument that man is to be celebrated as an individual, and we as individuals owe it to ourselves to write our own histories.
Rand excoriates civil rights leaders for their push for affirmative action. She writes,
Instead of (Negro leaders) fighting against racial discrimination, they are demanding that racial discrimination be legalized and enforced…instead of fighting for ‘color-blindness’ in social and economic issues, they are proclaiming that ‘color- blindness is evil and that ‘color’ should be made a primary consideration. (Rand, 1964, p. 154)
Rand is not alone in her argument. Affirmative action has been sanctioned, repealed, and reconsidered in many arenas (employment and higher education are prime examples) for the past two or more decades. The prevailing sentiment at present is that race should not be a factor in areas of promotion, and that persons should be considered solely on their own merit. As I see it, the error in Rand’s logic is that the very racism that Rand condemns is what should prevent the abolishment of affirmative action “until further notice.” There are few examples in the annals of modern history where people did the “right thing” just because it was the right thing to do; minorities gaining an equal number of early college admissions as their majority counterparts, employees having a racially balanced workforce, minority business owners garnering an equal number of contracts as “other” companies. Such instances are rare or nonexistent. As a society, there is a disingenuous effort on the part of affirmative action opponents to make us believe that the playing field is being leveled on its own, when in fact it very much remains unbalanced and intact.
Rand is also deluded in her support of capitalism as an “antidote to racism” (Rand, 1964, p. 150). Capitalism is defined as “an economic system in which investment in and ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange of wealth is made and maintained chiefly by private individuals or corporations” (Capitalism, 2006, p. 1). While well meaning, here again, capitalism does not make allowances for the well-intentioned minority businessman who cannot get his foot in the door of opportunity for the cronyism and back scratching that denies equal opportunity. That denial, coupled with the undeniable undercurrent of institutionalized racism that still exists today, dooms the capable and qualified minority capitalist to a marginal or failed career. Rand fails to recognize that her romantic ideals of a society equal in opportunities and achievement is a fallacy and remains one to this day.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, Ayn Rand makes a brilliant case for why America should rethink its position on foreign and domestic aid in times of crisis and need. Rand suggests that we as a nation have stretched ourselves thin with playing hero to other distressed countries, and in this manner, we have indeed mortgaged innocent lives both at home and abroad. In times of war, our nation’s heroic persona may also mislead others to see themselves as heroes, making worthless altruistic sacrifices to their own detriment.
Rand’s philosophy on racism seems to be predicated on the assumption that racism would cease to exist by the sheer will of men, yet many of these same men perpetuate the racism that Rand detests. Her position on affirmative action and her view of capitalism as the great equalizer are romantic ideals that have yet to find a place in this post-Civil Rights era of ever-present racism and discrimination.
References
Duck, Jennifer (2008, April 8). Bush emotional at medal ceremony for fallen Navy
SEAL. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from abcNEWS Website:
http://blogs.abcnews.com/politicalradar/2008/04/bush-emotional.html
Rand, A. (1964). The virtue of selfishness. New York: Signet.
Capitalism (2006). In Random House Unabridged Dictionary [Web]. New York:
Random House, Incorporated. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/capitalism
Administrative and Supervisory Leadership, Online, Fall 2008
Atlas Shrugged but Stumbled: A Layman’s Look at Rand’s Objectivism
Donna Charlton
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Prairie View, Texas
Assistant Principal
Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District
Houston, Texas
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Prairie View, Texas
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
College of Education and Professional Studies
Central Washington University
_____________________________________________________________
Abstract
Atlas Shrugged (1964) is Ayn Rand’s commentary on the rational, thinking man’s reaction to societal ills. Rand’s solution is Objectivism; she uses the characters and plot to expound on its tenets, which are grounded in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics and axiology (aesthetics). Her arguments work to advance the plot but fail in practical application.
________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Objectivism, a school of thought realized by Russian immigrant Ayn Rand in the late 20th century, is the product of a mind seeking justice, equality and valuation in the wake of a childhood marred by the enslaving effects of communist Russia. According to Brian Patterson, Rand stated:
Even at that age, I could see what was wrong with communism. It meant living for the State. I realized they were saying that the illiterate and the poor had to be rulers of the earth because they were illiterate and poor. (Communism) was the demand for the sacrifice of the best among men, and for the enshrinement of the commonplace, that I saw as the unspeakable evil of communism. (Patterson, n.d., par.5)
Objectivism expresses Rand’s ideal and holds that individuals are responsible for their own happiness which they achieve primarily through the actualization of their rational thoughts. Ideally, man’s rational thoughts should crystallize into tangible, productive achievement. This, in turn, should motivate his consensual existence by satisfying his ego, or need for self-esteem, which, according to Rand, fuels man’s reason to live. Objectivism boasts proponents and critics alike who either cloak themselves completely within her postulates or deride her commentary as more of a “movement” than a fully credentialed philosophy. To quell the argument over its validity, Rand herself wrote, “My philosophy, in essence, is the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute” (Rand, n.d.).
Yet, the argument continues, especially in political and financial arenas of democratic societies. Her philosophies are embraced and practiced by such notables as Alan Greenspan, American economist and former Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve of the United States. Dr. Leonard Peikoff, founder of the Ayn Rand Institute, is Rand’s anointed legal and intellectual heir (Patterson, n.d., par.7) and is, thereby, Objectivism’s “keeper of the flame”. As founding members of “The Collective”, a group of intellectuals assembled by Rand to champion her thoughts during Objectivism’s formative stages, both men have been roundly criticized for the ironies evinced in their own lives as well as for their inabilities to apply the principles of Objectivism consistently. Regardless of the nature of the description, Rand’s writings evoke thought that one may neither readily dismiss nor reconcile relative to his own beliefs.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to examine the philosophy of Objectivism as expressed through the prominent themes in Atlas Shrugged (Rand, 1964) and to evaluate its plausibility in twenty-first century society.
Themes
Atlas Shrugged (Rand) was written in 1957, born of the inner strife created by Rand’s early experiences under an oppressive communist regime. Its every element is presented in praise of Objectivism. Character, plot and setting advance the salient themes that gird Objectivism’s core.
The first of these is Rand’s idea of moral obligation. In the traditional sense, morality involves judgment relative to rules of conduct or behavior and whether an entity or action is “good” (moral) or “bad” (immoral). Society’s perception of good and bad has historically been based upon the relationship between the entity or action and its impact on man. In religious societies, these perceptions are manifest partly in terms of biblical beliefs and teachings. Obligation denotes an irresistible, internal urge to perform some action and, in terms of man’s relationship to man, usually involves unilateral sacrifice. The traditional moral paradigm tacitly seeks outside judgment of the interaction by which the individual then judges himself. In shocking contrast, Rand’s idea of moral obligation concerns man’s responsibility to himself and forms the ethical foundation for Objectivism. She redefined morality to encompass “…the pursuit of one’s own happiness...” (Rand, n.d.) without considering how the individual’s pursuit would impact anyone or anything else. This idea of moral obligation crystallizes in the objectivist concept of rational individualism, a theme that plays out through the characters of Dagny Taggert, Hank Rearden, and John Galt.
To be clear, rational individualism demonstrates the philosophy by which man justifies every decision he makes for himself and can be applied as a two-pronged test: 1) is the decision/action fundamental to the enhancement of his life, and, 2) does the decision/action encroach upon the rights of another. One could argue that an individual could use such a test as justification for any action. Rand, however, anticipated this misinterpretation and offers from The Fountainhead:
Man’s first duty is to himself…provided his wishes do not depend primarily upon other men. This includes the whole sphere of his creative faculty, his thinking, his work. But it does not include the sphere of the gangster, the altruist, and the dictator. (Patterson, n.d., par. 20)
The characters in Atlas Shrugged (Rand, 1957) are spirited, intriguing, purpose-driven characters who authentically portray objectivist ideals. Dagny Taggert is the very embodiment of rational individualism as the vice-president of Taggert Transcontinental. Unlike her brother Jim, she has no pseudo-altruistic motives and navigates every dramatic conflict by using truth, reason and self-interest. She contracts with Hank Rearden because he can deliver what Orren Boyle cannot; she is true to her convictions when she unapologetically proclaims that she makes business decisions in order to make money, and she publicly and unconventionally revels in her successes by openly acknowledging them as products of her own talents and by having an affair with the married Hank Rearden.
Unlike Dagny, Rearden struggles to abandon his initial beliefs before he can accept objectivist reality. He is consumed by his work and it is this passion, in part, that estranges him from his family who resent his achievements while welcoming their benefits. Rearden, who is first introduced in Chapter II: The Chain, is depicted as an accomplished businessman heralding the creation of his masterpiece – Rearden Metal. Yet, it is a lonely celebration as he seems hesitant to share the news with his family. His malaise persists until Chapter VI: The Non-Commercial, when he is approached by Francisco d’Anconia at his anniversary party. d’Anconia, has a cryptic conversation with him about his parasitic relationship with his family and it is this encounter that begins Rearden’s transformation. This metamorphosis is convincingly dramatized in the court scene in which Reardon refuses to be ruled as he states: “…I do not recognize this court’s right to try me…I do not recognize my action as a crime…I do not recognize your right to control the sale of my Metal…” (Rand, 1957, pp. 441-442).
Rand further illuminates the issue of rational individualism through the judges’ editorializing. After chastising Rearden about his attitude toward “the public good”, one of the judges asks, “Are we to understand…that you hold your own interests above the interests of the public?” to which Rearden replies, “I hold that such a question can never arise except in a society of cannibals” (Rand, 1957, p. 442). With these words Rearden affirms himself as a Randian hero.
Neither Dagny nor Rearden embody the objectivist ideal as completely as John Galt. In the initial pages of Atlas Shrugged (Rand, 1957), John Galt is already the stuff of legend which infers that the action to come is predicated upon some a priori chain of events that has already been acknowledged as significant and symbolic. Various characters ask rhetorically, “Who is John Galt” without truly knowing the origin of the question or why they utter it. Throughout the book, minor characters spread tales of his achievements like urban legends. And when, in the last third of the novel, Galt finally appears, he is Randian perfection, without blemish to his person, his philosophy or his actions.
Many of the hanging threads, so to speak, now form connections for the characters when Galt is presented: Dagny and Rearden learn that Galt is, indeed, real and that the fantastic tales told about him are true; the origin of the motor is revealed; the mystery behind the disappearances of the world’s great minds is solved; and Francisco d’Anconia’s behavior and motives are explained. Each of these connections exemplifies a theme or combination of themes exalting some aspect of Objectivism. Galt’s abandonment of the magnificent motor, as well as the sinking of his own ship represent rational individualism and the rejection of altruism or the sanction of “the public good” as discussed earlier regarding Rearden’s court scene. The fact that the world’s most talented creators have joined Galt in his secession from the world further undergirds these themes. And d’Anconia, initially perceived as a worthless playboy, is made heroic when the reader understands the depth of his cunning and his devotion to Galt.
Still, Galt is the most impressive character as the father of the movement because he has broached extremes in thought and behavior unrivaled by any of the others. Unlike Dagny and Rearden, who attempt to straddle both worlds, Galt realizes the futility of attempting to reconcile that which is so philosophically incompatible and founds Galt’s Gulch, Rand’s concept of the Utopian ideal. Galt’s action is precisely the point Rand wished to convey in explaining Objectivism’s metaphysical foundation when she wrote: “A leaf cannot be all red and green at the same time, it cannot freeze and burn at the same time. A is A” (Rand, n.d.).
This explains why Dagny and Rearden are constantly thwarted in their attempts to find success and satisfaction within society. Both Galt and Galt’s Gulch are symbols of Objectivism’s metaphysical element. They are purely objectivist manifestations exclusive of any other influences. Further support of this assertion is when Dagny encounters an inscription while in Galt’s Gulch that reads, “I swear by my life and my love of it that I will never live for the sake of another man, nor ask another man to live for mine” (Rand, 1957, p. 670).
This quote is the sum total of everything Ayn Rand championed in her efforts to defend the beliefs that she felt should be the overarching foundation of man’s life on earth. Galt’s every word and action are engendered from this oath and he is impervious to the conflicts and distractions that confound Dagny and Rearden. This elevates him to far more than a Randian hero; he and Galt’s Gulch are the objectivist ideal.
Additional Themes
The epistemological foundation of Objectivism is reason and is embodied by Rand’s view of the value of the human mind. This is the general theme of Atlas Shrugged (Rand, 1957). Rand’s message here is that man’s greatest ability is that of reason and that the quality of his existence is wholly dependent upon it. The “mind on strike” is the thematic expression by which she makes her case by illustrating the conflict between the “exploiters and the exploited.”
Rand’s view of religion is also expressed thematically in Atlas Shrugged (1957). Objectivism holds that man gains knowledge primarily through reason and “…rejects faith and “feeling” as means of attaining knowledge” (Rand, n.d.). According to Rand, one must first perceive or become aware of something through the senses. This assertion categorically dismisses the idea of a higher, unseen, mystical power as real and concludes that knowledge is an empirical product. Dagny and Rearden embody this attitude as they are clearly inspired only by what they can observe, achieve or create. Dagny makes the bold decision to use Rearden Metal only after she has evaluated convincing data that it will help achieve her goals. She and Rearden consort to build the bridge with “faith” based on perceptual knowledge and their own self confidence.
The view of productive work is another controlling theme in Atlas Shrugged (Rand, 1957) and provides the axiological or aesthetic foundation of Objectivism. As mentioned earlier, man’s rational thoughts should crystallize into productive achievement which should satisfy his ego. In the context of the novel, it is necessary to incorporate Rand’s view of governmental constraints on the individual to understand fully the objectivist definition of the aesthetic ideal. In Chapter II: The Chain, Hank Rearden presents his wife, Lillian, with a bracelet made of Rearden Metal. As he witnesses its making, Rearden savors the moment as the culmination of his life’s work and his greatest achievement. The bracelet becomes the symbolic representation of his brilliant mind. From a “producers” vantage point, the bracelet has aesthetic value because it is the crystallization of his rational thought in his attempt to live on earth; making rational decisions to ensure his mortality. The fact that the bracelet assuages his ego supports that Rand offers it as an aesthetic symbol. Likewise, Dagny is driven to make Taggert Transcontinental the best railroad in the country and the realization of that goal is her aesthetic. Similarly, Galt’s motor, d’Anconia’s copper mines, Wyatt’s oil fields, Halley’s Fifth concerto, and Kellogg and Mulligan’s intellect and expertise symbolize the aesthetic element that gives meaning and value to each character’s life. When governmental entities threaten to benefit from their talents and inventions without their consensual agreement, each character devises a way to withdraw his contributions from the world. Productive work, objectivist aesthetics and governmental power are themes that are inextricably interwoven to explain the characters’ motivation and behavior and to lend credence to Objectivism as the guiding principle of a plausible social system.
Objectivism vs. Reality
Atlas Shrugged (Rand, 1957) makes for riveting fiction and is a didactic prediction of what can occur when outside interests take precedence over man’s individual desires. It illustrates the tenets of Objectivism in a setting of optimal conditions for perfect, yet predictable plot development. After all, Ayn Rand wrote screenplays before coming into her own as a novelist. She was skilled at weaving tales, creating intrigue and sparking controversy. Her skill at designing a blueprint for man and society is not as laudable. The themes presented in the novel work for the sake of plot development. In reality they are naïve, implausible, and sometimes dangerous solutions for problems that are far more complex than the conflicts presented in the book.
Rand was a staunch advocate of Objectivism and showcases it well within the chapters of Atlas Shrugged (1957). In a rational sense, it is difficult to find fault with her position that man must be responsible for himself. By extension, many in today’s society would applaud the dismantling of the IRS and the dissolution of other government entities that have forced the able to be financial supporters for all. The possibility that the able could secede from society to live in their own communities by their own principles is appealing indeed, for who would prefer to answer to another before himself? Though attractive on the surface, the scenario illustrates one of Objectivism’s primary flaws – the separation of the “haves and have nots.” Rand would have the reader believe that man’s use of reason is the panacea for society’s woes. This conclusion is based upon the assumption that men have equal intellectual abilities, talents and opportunities. Atlas Shrugged (Rand, 1957) stumbles here because it relegates those who don’t realize their own aesthetic to the status of the looter. This is not altogether true. Many factors influence man’s fate and the “all or nothing” characterization is not an accurate assessment of man’s nature. Modern application of her philosophy could be disastrous. Present day conditions reinforce the fact that when groups of people, whether distinguished along racial, cultural or economic lines, are in some way disenfranchised, extreme societal discord results.
Rand admits that Objectivism works best under normal circumstances. It stumbles again when Objectivism is applied to abnormal situations. Rand attempts to mitigate the inconsistencies by offering a philosophy to address emergencies. Ironically, these emergencies advocate man becoming a “looter” or murderer in order to save his own life, even if at another man’s expense. She gave an interview at Columbia University in the early 1960s, titled “Morality, And Why Man Requires It” in which she discussed circumstances under which Objectivism would consider killing to be a rational, and therefore, acceptable decision: “… Rand explains how it is proper, under certain emergency conditions, to violate the rights of innocent men, or even to kill them” (Ayn Rand on Emergencies, n.d.).
To further illustrate the irony, consider Francisco d’Anconia’s words in the famous “money speech”: “Money is the barometer of a society’s virtue…when you see corruption being rewarded and honesty becoming a self-sacrifice---you may know that your society is doomed” (Rand, 2002).
Rand clearly values individual rights above all else, even when it means taking an innocent human life to preserve them. Not only is this ironic but it directly contradicts Objectivism’s own principles at its core. d’Anconia’s words are ominous examples of Objectivism’s implausibility. By all accounts, a man must value the lives of others if his own life is to be worth anything at all.
Concluding Remarks
Through the themes presented in Atlas Shrugged (1957), Ayn Rand successfully depicts a perfect world in Galt’s Gulch and a cast of characters who capture Objectivism’s principles in their fullest sense. Objectivism embodies ideas that evoke contemplation and ignite spirited philosophical discussions on talk shows and in coffee houses around the country. Rand’s ideas, however, buckle under the pressure of practical application. Ultimately, Atlas Shrugged (Rand, 1957) stumbles because of its implausibility in a practical society.
References
Ayn Rand on emergencies (2008, March 6). Retrieved March 6, 2008, from
jeffcomp: http://www.jeffcomp.com
Patterson, B. (n.d.). Objectivism expository speech. Retrieved March 4, 2008, from http://www.cs.iastate.edu/patterbj/misc/ObjectivismOr.pdf
Rand, A. (1957). Atlas shrugged. New York: Signet.
Rand, A. (2002). Francisco’s money speech. Capitalism Magazine. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from http://www.capmag.com
Rand, A. (n.d.) Objectivism. In Wikipedia [Web]. Retrieved March 4, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivism
Journal of Religious Studies, 25 (3) 2008wyqd
Christianity vs. Ayn Rand: An Exploration of Objectivism through Atlas Shrugged
Christopher Rashard O’Brine
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Prairie View, Texas
School Facilitator
Houston Independent School District
Houston, Texas
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Prairie View, Texas
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
College of Education and Professional Studies
Central Washington University
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this article is to discuss Objectivism, the philosophy of Ayn Rand through the use of Atlas Shrugged, a book written by her in 1957. To better facilitate this discussion examples from the 21st century will also be utilized to add an additional photographic picture of her ideas. These ideas are vivid in her book and through this explanation of her philosophy you will experience many emotions. Objectivism allows us to take a look into metaphysics, epistemology, ethics and politics, all which are components of this philosophy.
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Introduction
There is only one person capable of holding up the world and when you look in the mirror you see his/her reflection every time according to Ayn Rand. But for those of use who are believers in something greater than man, this deity is much different; he is someone we all strive to be like in our daily lives. Even though we want to be like him we realize that we are not capable, because sin entered into the world over 2,000 years ago; however, we still keep trying.
Alisa Rosnbaum, Ayn Rand, was born in Russia, in 1905. At the age of six, she taught herself to read and decided that she wanted to become a writer. Those vital years of ones life that helps shape their beliefs and values were engulfed in war for her. Her family had to flee their home for their safety. As a child, preteen, and young adult she witnessed communism first hand. Returning to Russia, she studied philosophy and history. Rand believed America was a true model of a nation that could represent what free men could be and in 1925 she left for America. Despite many obstacles, Ayn Rand was able to live the dream that she believed was possible, becoming a writer. Through her writings her personal philosophy, shaped from her experiences, became her focal point. Her philosophy is known as “Objectivism” (Townsell, 2008).
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to discuss Objectivism, the philosophy of Ayn Rand through the use of Atlas Shrugged, a book written by her in 1957. To better facilitate this discussion examples from the 21st century will also be utilized to add an additional photographic picture of her ideas. These ideas are vivid in her book and through this explanation of her philosophy you will experience many emotions. Objectivism allows us to take a look into metaphysics, epistemology, ethics and politics all which are components of this philosophy. In order to truly understand her philosophy, Objectivism, we must first know what it means. “Objectivism is an integrated system of thought that defines the abstract principles by which a man must think and act if he is to live the life proper to man” (Ayn Rand Institute, 2008a, p. 1). Objectivism can be summarized into the following components: metaphysics, epistemology, human nature, ethics, politics and esthetics. In discussing each of these components, as they relate to Atlas Shrugged (1957), we will also have an opportunity to see how they would look in today’s society.
Metaphysics
Reality, the external world, exists independent of man’s consciousness, independent of any observer’s knowledge, beliefs, feelings, desires or fears. This means that A is A, that facts are facts, that things are what they are and that the task of man’s consciousness is to perceive reality, not to create or invent it. Thus Objectivism rejects any belief in the supernatural—and any claim that individuals or groups create their own reality. (Any Rand Institute, 2008a, p. 1)
In the story, we see metaphysics at work. For example, when Hank Rearden wanted to offer a gift to his wife, a bracelet from the first batch of Rearden Medal, the reality was that he was very proud of this new metal he invented. For his wife, she really did not understand the value it had to him, because it was his blood sweet and tears that allowed for this new invention to come to fruition. On the other hand, Hank did not understand his wife’s idea of a wonderful gift was not a bracelet made from Rearden Medal. She would have preferred a diamond or gold bracelet.
In regards to rejecting any belief in the supernatural – John Galt, did not think of man when he decided to allow his work to die. The invention of the steam engine would have offered much to the world during that time. Many companies depended on trains to transport artifacts and/or precious commodities. Had he thought about the value it would have had to the world, he would have understood the principle of giving, which is a spiritual principle. The scripture “Behold how good and pleasant it is for brethren to dwell in unity,” would have also had significant meaning to him as well. For John Galt, spirituality did not play a part in his life; he only sought to live for himself and not for others regardless of the consequences. Because of his actions as well as others in the story, one is lead to believe that Rand wasn’t a Christian. Despite her not being a Christian, from her work one can conclude that she believe in something greater than herself. In Atlas Shrugged (Rand, 1957), John Galt is looked upon as the possible savor of the world. The government felt he had all the answers to the world’s problems and for him to be viewed in that manner leads one to believe that he possess characteristics parallel to that of Jesus Christ. The world exists independent of man’s consciousness, signifies to me that in spite of how we feel as individuals about situations our feelings do not have any place in the world, because regardless of how we feel the world is still going to exist; the world does not need our approval.
When Mr. Danneskjöld came to Rearden and informed him of the money he had collected from the looters that stole it from him; Rearden did not want any part of it; however, the reality was that it was his money and Danneskjöld was not going to spend it. “What is that? Your income tax, Mr. Rearden. What? Your income tax for the last twelve years. You intend to refund that? In full and in gold, Mr. Rearden” (Rand, 1957, p. 534). This too is an example of metaphysics, facts being facts. In everyday life we are often said to create our own reality; however, Rand disagrees with that. She feels that reality is what it is; not created or invented. So for one to say that he or she has created their reality through hard work, dedication and perseverance; Rand’s philosophy would negate that.
Epistemology
Dagny Taggart, a woman who believed in herself and her abilities, understood the fact of reality, because she knew that if individuals found out that she and John Galt were lovers he would have been killed; therefore, she choose to keep that information to herself in order to spare his life toward the end of the story. Additionally, John Galt knew that his invention of the steam engine could be utilized; however, the government would have established regulations and possibly required him to sell his invention. Now rejecting mysticism, Objectivism states that acceptance of faith or feeling as a means of knowledge is not possible, this ties back to metaphysics in which man rejects any belief in the supernatural. For one to really acquire knowledge he or she has to live life. Living day by day is the focus in objectivism; however, Christians believe to become knowledgeable one has to live life but live it accordingly to the word of God, but there is no place for God in objectivism.
Epistemology in today’s society would say if you can not perceive it with your senses then it is not real. To say that you believe in a God would not be epistemological. The only reason according to epistemology that students desire to obtain a PhD is for them to gain knowledge; however, we realize that is not always the case in many instances. It is also used a stepping stone to greater things or a means to an end or beginning.
Human Nature
Man is a rational being. Reason, as man’s only means of knowledge, is his basic means of survival. But the exercise of reason depends on each individual’s choice.
Man is a being of volitional consciousness. That which you call your soul or spirit is your consciousness, and that which you call ‘free will’ is your mind’s freedom to think or not, the only will you have, your only freedom. This is the choice that controls all the choices you make and determines your life and character. Thus Objectivism rejects any from of determinism, that belief that man is a victim of forces beyond his control (such as God, fate, upbringing, genes, or economic conditions). (Ayn Rand Institute, 2008a, p. 2)
Rand explains herself very clearly in Atlas Shrugged. For example, it was not by any chance that Hank Rearden developed Rearden Metal; it came from years and years of work. Boyle did not like the idea that Rearden was unable to keep up with the demand that was needed of Rearden Metal. “How long, for instance, are we going to put up with the disgraceful shortage of Rearden Metal? There is a crying public demand for it, which Rearden has failed to supply. “Why should Rearden be the only one permitted to manufacture Rearden Metal?” (Rand, 1957, p. 503) Boyle’s reason told him that in order for people to survive more Rearden Metal needed to be produced and produced by others to meet the demand. Boyle never took a moment to realize that Rearden’s reason would tell him that it was his invention and no one else should be able to produce it, especially after people saying in the industry that is was worthless. Galt also had dealt with human nature. It was his means of knowledge and thinking, which allowed him to not conform to that of the world when they wanted him to figure out how to save it. It was Gault that said, every man is for himself, he works for himself not the betterment of others or his country.
It is often said that if you expect to survive in the world you have fight, this doesn’t mean a physical battle. It refers to a spiritual battle or one in which you have to work for what you want. As individuals, we can not expect things to be given to us on a silver platter; we have to work for them. Your will controls your choices in the world. If there is something that you really and truly want your will informs you how to go about getting it; thus determining your life and character. For example, one would say that if a person steals for the sake of their child, because they are starving, that would be seen not as negatively as one stealing for the sake of stealing. The individual that stole for the sake of stealing would be looked upon as an individual without any morals. It is not the crime in this instance that is judged but the intent and/or reason for it being committed. If you are one who continually makes bad choices: getting in to bad marriages, spending money unwisely and conforming to the world, your life will reflect that according to Rand.
Sociologists have said that children will also become a part of the same class system as their parents when they reach adult hood; however, the philosophy of objectivism rejects this. It also rejects the belief that fate plays a part in a human being’s life; what we accomplish has been destined since the beginning. Objectivism once again rejects any form of determinism. You can not be judge by your genes, economic condition, fate, or upbringing. Man in himself decides the course of life that he takes and the methods he chooses to utilize on his journey. There is nothing that can alter that but man himself. Parents are those individuals who are thought to love their children unconditionally and would do anything for them; however, Rand says your only reason for living is to gain knowledge. To say that an individual continues to live for the sake of their child would go against her beliefs. On a deeper note, how do we explain a woman that has suffered for over 11 years and the last two months of her life have being extremely painful for her? How do we deal with doctors telling you and your family that they do not understand what is keeping her here. Unable to talk, we began communicating with her by asking questions and she responds by blinking her eyes if she agreed or wanted to answer yes. In this scenario to ask her, two week prior to her death, if she was wants to see here grandson before she leaves this world and she blinked her eyes numerous times. To your dissatisfaction, you are unable to locate him and she passed on March 5, 2008. On the day that she passed, you are able to get in touch with the grandson that she has not seen in over 8 years. So for Rand to say that people only live to gain knowledge I respond, “What knowledge was the lady in this scenario gaining by wanting to see her grandson one more time?”
Ethics
Reason is man’s only proper judge of values and his only proper guide to action. The proper standard of ethics is: man’s survival qua man—i.e., that which is required by man’s nature for his survival as a rational being (not his momentary physical survival as a mindless brute). (Ayn Rand Institute, 2008a, p. 2)
Centralization destroys the blight of monopoly, said Boyle. It destroys the blight of monopoly. It leads to the democratization of industry. It makes everything available to everybody. Now for instance, at a time like this, when there’s such a desperate shortage of iron ore, is there any sense in my wasting money, labor and national resources on making old-fashioned steel, when there exists a much better metal that I could be making. A metal that everybody wants, but no body can get. (Rand, 1957, pp. 502-503)
Through this example we come to understand that Rand knew of a world where man’s ethics dealt with his survival and for him to survive he was not concerned with the interested of others; selfishness or inconsideration. Rand would say,
Rationality is man’s basic virtue, and his three fundamental values are: reason, purpose, self-esteem. He must live for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself; he must work for his rational self-interest, with the achievement of his own happiness as the highest moral purpose of his life. (Ayn Rand Institute, 2008a, p. 2)
Throughout the story we hear the phrase, “Who is John Galt?” (Rand, 1957) This was the question that was on the minds of those who worked in the railroad industry. The name had more meaning than what any of those who spoke it could realize. As stated earlier, John Galt was a man who sought to halt the world, to make it stand still, because he would not finish the greatest invention of his time. With his insurmountable knowledge, he would rather keep his knowledge/invention to himself than to give it up or share it with the world. John Galt worked for his own pleasures, not the pleasures of the world. If he had been an individual that pursued happiness from the world he would have given his steam engine to the world. Hank Rearden, another individual in the story, worked for his own satisfaction. Rearden was not concerned with the concerns of the world; when others felt that his steel would not be beneficial, he continued to work, because he saw the value in his work. Like Galt, he did not need the approval of the world; he just needed his own. Galt and Rearden are two individuals that reject any form of altruism. In the world today these gentlemen would be viewed as selfish men, because of their lack of care or consideration for their fellow man.
Politics
According to Rand’s philosophy no man has the right to seek value from others by force; meaning that a man should not initiate the use of physical force against another. To use force a man must be threatened and feel that he needs to defend himself from one who has initiated force (Ayn Rand Institute, 2008b). It is the job of the government to protect men from those who seek to use physical force.
In the 21st Century, government is involved with protecting this country as well as other countries when there are issue of social injustices and threats of violence and war. Currently, American troops are stationed all over the world ready in a moment notice to serve and protect others. Days after September 11, 2001; the U.S. militaries were deployed to serve this country after the planes crashed into the World Trade Center. Our government thrives on the idea of Rand’s politics as it relate to the use of force. Furthermore, it is equally important to remember that this country was built on the back of numerous of wars and battles.
Ayn Rand philosophy, additionally, rejects the notion that government should regulate the economy and redistribute wealth.
Those bastards—who use to give use loans in the old days with no security at all except our own railroads—now refuse to let me have a measly few hundred-thousand, on short-term, just to take care of a few payrolls when I have the entire plant of all the railroads of the country to offer them as security for my loan! (Rand, 1957, p. 834)
Another example of Rand’s view of government deals with Mr. Rearden. After receiving the notice that all of his property had been attached to satisfy a delinquent judgment, Rearden told his Lawyer not to take any action. His lawyer felt that they had left him, Rearden, helpless; however, he did not feel the same way, because he had a bar of gold in his safe (Rand, 1957). Rearden knew he had done no wrong; therefore, he was not worried. The next day he receive a call “whose voice seemed to come sliding down a wire on its knees in protestations of apology” (Rand, 1957, p. 883). They were calling to inform him that a mistake was made and he received several different apologies.
Each year around December 31 people start to become overly anxious about the money they will be getting at income tax time. As part of our economy all employed individual are required to pay income tax on the money they earn minus deductions they had during that year. In Ayn Rand’s world, this is an example of government gone to far.
Esthetics
To Ayn Rand, “the purpose of art is to concretize the artist’s fundamental view of existence. Rand’s approach is ‘Romantic Realism’” (Any Rand Institute, 2008a, p. 3). She presents men as they ought to be an end in himself—not as a means to any further end. As Galt states so eloquently, he will not give up his life for man nor does he expect man to give up his life for him. Being that man is the “Supreme Being” in Rand’s mind there is nothing or no one higher than man; Rand is the artist in Atlas Shrugged (1957).
In this country as stated earlier, there are individuals that give up their life on a daily basis for something greater than themselves and that is the love of their country and countrymen. In addition, over 2000 years ago, Jesus, the son of God, gave up his life for all man kind. His father, God Jehovah, was so loving and forgiving of mankind that he allowed his son to die for the sins of the world. There is no greater love than a man who would lay down his life for a friend. To Rand these ideas are preposterous; man should only be worried about himself not the betterment of his kinship, countrymen, or country.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, there will never be one supreme philosophy that all men can truly agree upon. At best we can take those points that we agree with from several philosophies and utilize them for the betterment of our lives; however, what will work for one individual might not work for another. Living by the “Golden Rule,” do unto other as you will have them do unto you, may be just the place to start when developing your own personal philosophy. For Ayn Rand to not let man determine her life and dictate to her what she was capable of achieving, she should be commended. I must agree with Rand, because I am a believer that what we get out of life we have earned, because we have worked for it; we can’t expect it to be given to us on a silver platter. More equally important, when looking at her philosophy and all that she stood for, one must ask, why did she have to come to America to make her philosophy known? For her to have done that she had to believe in something better, meaning people. She had to believe and know that in this country one would be able to speak their mind and not have to worry about persecution. So, I ask this question again, if she really and truly believed in her philosophy why did she not voice it in Russia and why did she have to come to America to make it known and express it. There are individuals that will say she came here because in a communist society, where she lived, they would have killed her for speaking her mind. The communist government would have seen this as disobedience. It is my belief that when an individual really and truly believes in something they will be willing to die for it, like Galt was willing to die for his beliefs and just as Jesus Christ died for the sins of the word, because he believed in us a humans and wanted to give us another chance. Lastly, in her own words, “Wishing won’t make it so” (Ayn Rand Institute, 2008b, p. 1). Just because you wish to win the lottery, it is not going to happen unless you play. It is easy for a man to wish for things but it is much harder for him to work and earn them for himself, in doing that he will build character. As humans, we are the authors and finishers of our fate. Regardless if we agree with her or not, we have to applaud her for having the courage to speak her mind when she new people would truly disagree.
References
Ayn Rand Institute (2008a). Essentials of objectivism. Retrieved March 3, 2008, from Website: http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServe?pagename=objectivism_essentials
Ayn Rand Institute (2008b). Introducing objectivism. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from Website:
http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServe?pagename=objectivism_intro
Rand, A. (1957). Atlas shrugged (50th Anniversary ed.). New York: New American Library.
Townsell, R., & Kritsonis, W. (n.d.). Who in the world is Ayn Rand? Retrieved March 1, 2008, from Website: http://www.eric.ed.gov
Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, National FORUM Journals, Houston, Texas. www.nationalforum.com
DOCTORAL FORUM
NATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PUBLISHING AND MENTORING DOCTORAL STUDENT RESEARCH
VOLUME 6 NUMBER 1, 2009
Ayn Rand versus the Public School Systems of America:
The Case against Objectivism in Public School Education
Misti M. Morgan
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A & M University
Assistant Principal
Houston Independent School District
Houston, Texas
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Visiting Lecturer
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus
Central Washington University
College of Educational and Professional Studies
______________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Ayn Rand’s Objectivist philosophy is a complete antithesis to the present-day public education system, particularly in the areas of metaphysics, ethics, and politics. Rand’s philosophy, if implemented, would further erode an already troubled system, seeking only to educate the more affluent (those who could pay for their own education) in a selfish, elitist manner. While there can be no argument that public education is in a state of crisis, the answer is not a reversal of the tenets upon which it was founded; free and appropriate education should still be for all. A more feasible solution lies within the return of the men of the mind, those who have left public school and urban education in favor of more lucrative or less frustrating pursuits. When educational innovators establish a collective to repair our broken schools, excellence will be restored.
______________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Are we our brother’s keeper? It is the question that Ayn Rand sought to answer in her philosophy of Objectivism and her magnum opus of Atlas Shrugged (1957). Rand’s Objectivist philosophy is very clear in its celebration of the individual and his or her personal pursuit of enlightenment, and she is particularly opposed to the current state of public school education. Upon reviewing the Objectivist position on public school education, one is struck by the idea that Objectivists do not view the current educational system as repairable; in fact, it would appear that they are patiently waiting in the wings until its final collapse, much like John Galt, before they step forward with a Capitalist plan for its improvement. Unfortunately, Rand and other Objectivists disregard, perhaps intentionally, how their plan would disenfranchise the average student: one who cannot afford to personally fund their education, as Capitalism would suggest. In defense of these students, it is necessary to form an argument against the Objectivist view, and to work to improve the current structure for their sake.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of the article is to construct a defense of public school education through the filter of Rand’s Objectivist philosophy, specifically the Objectivist tenets of metaphysics, ethics, and politics.
On Metaphysics – Objective Reality
In Atlas Shrugged (1957), the characters of Dagny Taggart and Hank Rearden fail to see reality for what it really is – they engage in a form of “subjective realism”, undaunted by the crumbling nature of society, they press forward in the respective industries. Their belief that they can effectively move the world forward despite growing chaos and the presence of a destroyer is in contrast to Galt’s metaphysical awareness that society is crumbling under socialist dictates and greed. Hank Rearden’s insistence on believing in the good of the common man and Dagny Taggart’s refusal to walk away from Taggart Transcontinental in the midst of tightening regulatory controls blinds them both to the true metaphysical reality and makes them slaves to the parasitic nature of the government and its edicts. Only in the face of complete collapse does either character become fully aware of their inability to shape their individual realities.
Metaphysics in Education
The objective reality that Rand pits her main characters of Dagny and Hank against underlies a wave of pessimism. If it were not for the Dagnys and Hanks of the world, how could a struggling society ever emerge from troubled times? According to Rand, “If things are what they are – and that the task of man’s consciousness is to perceive reality, not create it or invent it” (Ayn Rand Institute, 1995b, p. 2), how would a society improve or continue to move forward? What good exists in a society if the dreamers, innovators, and visionaries simply resign due to disintegrating conditions? Rather than seeing the world for what it is, why not see it for what it can be and actually do something about its current state? Many present-day institutions are endangered by a growing lack of intellectual resources – men of the mind who are seemingly disappearing. The field of public school education stands as a prime example of a microcosmic society teetering on the brink of collapse. Multiple factors contributed to its decline: the government-based policy of No Child Left Behind sent a shockwave through public schools that left many gifted yet uncertified teachers scrambling for more secure employment once their (emergency) permits expired. Accountability through standardized testing has led to a “watered down” version of teaching that deviates further from a college-ready curriculum and closer to the test itself. In schools where the needs are greatest, the help is the most scarce; inner-city (low socioeconomic) schools are saddled with the burden of low test scores and government mandates to raise them, or else. In the face of these odds, we the educators are faced with a dilemma – do we “withdraw” and watch our urban schools implode, or do we dig in, as Hank Rearden did to fix the broken furnace, to salvage the profession we love?
A cry for help is being uttered from these battered institutions, and one is left to wonder where all the fixers, doers, heroes, and “men of the mind” have gone. In the face of growing pressure to achieve with fewer resources, many of education’s best and brightest have also withdrawn: capable men have fled to the more affluent suburban classrooms or erected charter schools to escape the mandates of public school accountability (and perhaps to “cherry pick” students who are guaranteed to produce positive results); brilliant minds rebel against the low salary and high certification requirements and avoid teaching altogether; other talented individuals opt for consultant work or educational sales. Still others who are in a position to retire have done so. The compound effect of their departures has left many of our most disparate schools bereft of resources and hope. Yet the real victims are the children of the public schools that are left behind. These students have no choice in how or where they are educated – they are academically marginalized on a daily basis while those who could make a difference choose not to – their reluctance to lend their genius to struggling schools is tantamount to the philosophy of John Galt and the inhabitants of Galt’s Gulch, where only after a total collapse of society do they decide to grace the world with their genius.
In order to save public schools and reverse their downward spiral, I do not believe that we can afford to subscribe to Rand’s philosophy of an objective reality. Yes, we see things as they are, but we cannot “obey” nature and allow our educational structures to fall because “that’s just the way it is.” The application of Rand’s theory leaves too many lives hanging in the balance – the lives of impressionable students who would compel us to see things in education for what they are, and then work to improve them, believing all along that while the work may be hard, it can and must be done for the sake of the children.
On Ethics
Rand’s Objectivist position holds that
man – every man – is an end in himself, not a means to the ends of others; he must live for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself; he must work for his rational self-interest, with the achievement of his own happiness as the highest moral purpose of his life. (Ayn Rand Institute, 1995, p. 2)
Rand rejects the principle of altruism, or the basic code that “man has no right to exist for his own sake, that service to others is the only moral justification of his existence, and that self-sacrifice is his highest moral duty, virtue, and value” (Ayn Rand Institute, 1995a, p. 2). In Atlas Shrugged (1957), Galt’s declaration, "I swear -- by my life and my love of it -- that I will never live for the sake of another man, nor ask another man to live for mine” (Rand, 1957, p. 1069) and the actions of Galt and the gulch inhabitants were a rejection of altruism; Galt and the other innovators undoubtedly saw the ill-fated “aristocracy of pull” as a succubus that demanded the will of others as their means of survival and improvement. Rand’s writings (post Atlas Shrugged) indict public education as a socialist system doomed by its altruistic virtues of a moral obligation to provide a free and appropriate education to every child. Rand’s celebration of the individual and his rational mind finds the concept of Montessori schools as a cure for the ills of the current educational system:
The middle class has created an antidote which is perhaps the most helpful movement in recent years: the spontaneous, unorganized, grass—roots revival of the Montessori system of education—a system aimed at the development of a child’s cognitive, i.e., rational faculty. (Ayn Rand Institute, 2002, p. 7)
Rand’s support of the Montessori system encompasses the following ideals:
• Structure – Children of varying age ranges may be grouped together in a classroom where the standard desk arrangement may not be present. Students learn at their own pace, choose their own activities (or choose to do nothing), and progress when necessary, not when the teacher demands it.
• Homework – Generally, none is assigned
• Assessment/Evaluation –Teachers keep detailed records of student interests and choices, charting their progress, development, and improvement instead of measuring students against a fixed universal standard. Simple right and wrong answers run contrary to the philosophy of Montessori education.”
• Technology – Since Montessori schools encourage students to explore their interests, experiences with technology may vary more than a traditional school which establishes specific technology standards. One student might decide to investigate methods of online research, while another with no interest in computers will not hone this skill. (Montessori Schools, 2006, p. 1-2)
Rand’s hallmark of the celebration of the individual and free will is prominently featured throughout the Montessori philosophy. Yet criticism of the Montessori Method has been steadfast and not without merit. When compared to public education, Montessori deviates from the mean in several areas:
- Most Montessori schools assess a tuition-related fee, thereby excluding any potential students whose parents cannot afford the cost (and earning an elitist reputation)
- Montessori espouses a more idealistic than pragmatic view of education. “In fact, Maria Montessori’s own writings have been referred to as ‘romantic rhetoric’, inapplicable to real world settings” (Montessori Schools, 2006, p. 3).
- The Montessori philosophy that everything a child does is considered as “work” leads to confusion about the difference between work and play, and the over emphasis on work lacks the key component of socialization that children need to be successful in social settings
- Montessori schools lack diversity (undoubtedly due to their omission of non-paying students) and often demographically resemble “private, elite academies of the rich and privileged” (Montessori Schools, 2006, p. 3). This educational environment sorely underprepares its students for the diversity that they will ultimately face in future educational and professional settings
- Montessori provides only a rudimentary plan to address students with learning differences (special education)
Ethics in Education
The hallmark of public school education is to provide a free and appropriate education to all students who enter the school doors. “Public schools are the only schools that must meet the needs of all students. They do not turn children or families away. Public schools serve children with physical, emotional, and mental disabilities, those who are extremely gifted and those who are learning challenged, right along with children without special needs. (Top 10 Reasons to Support Public Education, 2004, p. 1)
In short, no child can be left behind in a public school. Rand’s endorsement of the Montessori Method would instantly leave an even more sizable percentage of the populace disenfranchised, creating a subculture of citizens relegated to the most menial tasks of society, or worse, to a life of crime. While public education may stumble in its good intentions, at its core it remains an institution of hope and opportunity for the uneducated masses. Much like Rand’s tumultuous society in Atlas Shrugged (1957), much of what is needed to improve public schools could be found when men of the mind – creative thinkers and innovators – return to invigorate the schools most in need of assistance.
On Politics
Rand’s Objectivist position on politics “rejects any form of collectivism, such as fascism or socialism. It also rejects the current ‘mixed economy’ notion that the government should regulate the economy and redistribute wealth” (Ayn Rand Institute, 1995b, p. 3). Instead, Rand believes in a capitalist economy,
an economic system in which investment in and ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange of wealth is made and maintained chiefly by private individuals or corporations, esp. as contrasted to cooperatively or state-owned means of wealth. (Capitalism, 2006, p. 1)
To apply Rand’s view to the field of education would present a speedy rejection of Texas’s “Robin Hood” school funding plan.
Politics in Education
The Robin Hood plan was a nickname given to legislation enacted by the U.S. state of Texas in 1993 to provide court-mandated equitable school financing for all school districts in the state. Similar to the legend of Robin Hood, who ‘robbed from the rich and gave to the poor’, the law ‘recaptured’ property tax revenue from property-wealthy school districts, in an effort to equalize the financing of all districts throughout Texas. (Robin Hood Plan, 2007, p.1)
In Rand’s Capitalist vision, education and the funding thereof would be undertaken as a “private profit making enterprise”. Under Capitalism, free education would be “provided by private individuals, i.e., parents paying for their child’s education, i.e., individuals acting as a group, e.g., church groups and non-religious groups” (Education, n.d. p. 1). The error in Rand’s Capitalist agenda for education lies in the fact that one, parents who cannot afford to pay for their child’s education are left with few or no options, and two, group funding of education, e.g., churches, has the potential of slanting the curriculum to suit their own agenda (curiously, the latter is an argument that Rand and other Objectivist philosophers have made about the current government-subsidized public school system). Capitalist supporters possess a myopic view of the pitfalls associated with applying a Capitalist economy to public school funding: when asked about those “who cannot afford to pay for their education”, the author of Capitalism.org refers to the underprivileged as “those select few” and offers only the suggestion that this “minority” resort to private charity (Education, n.d. p. 2). Interestingly, Rand herself was against the concept of charity. In a 1964 interview that Rand granted Playboy magazine, she stated that her views on charity were very simple. She considered neither it a major virtue nor a moral duty. To Rand, there was nothing wrong in helping other people, if and when they were worthy of the help and you (the individual) could afford to help them. Rand’s support of a Capitalist economy intentionally disregards the fundamental rights of public schoolchildren to an easily-accessed education, elevating it just beyond their desperate grasp.
Jonathan Kozol, author of Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools (1992), toured the public school systems of East St. Louis, Chicago, New York City, Camden, and Washington D.C. During his visits, Kozol was struck by the vast “disparities in education between schools of different classes and races” (urban vs. suburban). Kozol writes,
One would not have thought that children in America would ever have to choose between a teacher or a playground or sufficient toilet paper. Like grain in a time of famine, the immense resources which the nation does in fact possess go not to the child in the greatest need but to the child of the highest bidder. (Kozol, 1992, p. 72)
Adaptation of Rand’s laissez-faire Capitalism would relegate public schoolchildren to the same fate as the citizens of New York in Atlas Shrugged (1957); the innocents who languish away while the men of the mind and means turn a blind eye to their suffering, choosing instead to only “save the world” after a total collapse has ensued.
Concluding Remarks
Rand’s Objectivist theory and its specific views of metaphysics, ethics, and politics stand in total opposition to the public education system of today. While there is absolute room for improvement in present-day public schools, Rand’s recommendations of an education rooted in selfishness that is accessible only to those who have the means to pay for it, is a callous disregard for the lives of our current students and potential leaders, our future “men of the mind”.
References
Capitalism (2006). In Random House Unabridged Dictionary [Web]. New York:
Random House, Incorporated. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/capitalism
Education (n.d.). Retrieved March 19, 2008, from The Capitalism Website: http://www.capitalism.org/faq/education.htm
Kozol, J. (1992). Savage inequalities – Children in America’s schools. New York:
HarperCollins Publishers, Incorporated.
Montessori schools (2006, July 3). Retrieved March 17, 2008, from WikEd Website:
http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Montessori_Schools
Rand, A. (1957). Atlas shrugged. New York: Penguin Putnam, Incorporated.
Robin Hood plan (2007, December 6). Retrieved March 18, 2008, from Wikipedia Website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Hood_plan
Savage inequalities (2008, March 26). Retrieved April 1, 2008, from Wikipedia Website:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savage_Inequalities
The Ayn Rand Institute (1995a). Introducing objectivism. Retrieved March 20, 2008, from The Ayn Rand Institute Website: http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=Objectivism_intro
The Ayn Rand Institute (1995b). Essentials of Objectivism. Retrieved March 20, 2008, from The Ayn Rand Institute Website: http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=Objectivism_ess…
The Ayn Rand Institute (2002). Articles & extracts – Ayn Rand and her thoughts on rational education. Retrieved March 17, 2008, from the Ayn Rand Institute Website: http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?id=6151&page=NewsArticle
Top 10 reasons to support public education (1994, June). Retrieved March 17, 2008, from the Nebraska State Education Association Website: http://www.nsea.org/parents/articles/top10.htm?printable=true
_______________________________________________________________________Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, National FORUM Journals, Houston, Texas. www.nationalforum.com
Oriel Journal of English, University of Oxford, England, Fall 2008
Reflections on Rand’s The Virtue of Selfishness: Thoughts on Collectivism and Racism
Donna Charlton
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Prairie View, Texas
Assistant Principal
Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District
Houston, Texas
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Prairie View, Texas
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
College of Education and Professional Studies
Central Washington University
Abstract
Ayn Rand’s The Virtue of Selfishness (1964) is a collection of writings, along with Nathaniel Branden, in which she discusses a variety of pertinent queries that arise through the study of Objectivism. Her thoughts on collectivism and racism, coupled with the writer’s opinions are discussed herein. The writer concludes that Objectivism’s reliability as a viable philosophy varies according to the circumstances to which it is applied.
________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
The Virtue of Selfishness (1964) is a collection of essays, manuscripts and speeches by Ayn Rand, with additional articles by one-time friend and fellow academe Nathaniel Branden. Selfishness, as a virtue, is the central precept of “Objectivism.” Her commentaries provide insight into the objectivist view of collectivism and racism and address the layman’s questions regarding the validity and plausibility of the philosophy. Although problems abound in terms of its practicality and adoptability, Objectivism is wholly applicable to a number of current events. Even with this admission, Rand’s solutions to certain societal issues fail to offer substantive, satisfying resolutions.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of the article is to debate the most salient issues discussed in The Virtue of Selfishness (1964) in terms of their application in a free society. Collectivized Ethics and Racism are the essays in the collection that are discussed. The article examines issues raised in these essays in the context of contemporary societal realities.
Collectivized Ethics
Ayn Rand passionately championed Objectivist ethics, distinguished from biblically-based, conventional ethics in that the concept “proudly upholds rational selfishness” (Rand, 1964). The term was coined by Rand and represents the idea that the individual should be the sole benefactor of his ideas, efforts, and achievements. It espouses that man’s decisions should be congruent with that which will enhance his life and should be the result of rational, conscious thought. Unlike conventional ethics, objectivist ethics elevates the needs of the individual above those of society. This idea, expressed as “egoism”, identifies self-esteem as a central element of man’s existence and defines his reason to live: the glorification of his own life through the satisfaction of his ego. It embraces selfishness as essential to man’s existence. That which is essential or necessary to man’s existence is considered ethical or “good”. This is the fundamental difference between the two schools of thought and forms the ethical foundation of Objectivism.
Collectivized Ethics, the tenth entry in The Virtue of Selfishness (1964), condemns the ruthless, unprincipled pursuit of interests deemed necessary for the “public good”. Long an opponent of collectivism, Rand illustrates an epiphanic court scene in Atlas Shrugged (1964) that cuts collectivism’s supporters to the quick (Rand, 1957). Rand insists that decisions made with a collectivized mind are inherently evil because such actions invariably compromise the liberties of free, innocent men. She argues that, under the “altruist-collectivist premise…the misfortune of some is a mortgage on others” (Rand, 1964, p. 93) and maintains that men have the fundamental right to live their own lives independent of circumstances that may befall others. Rand clarifies her stance regarding altruism when she states, “Only individual men have the right to decide when or whether they wish to help others; society – as an organized political system has no
rights in the matter at all” (Rand, 1964, p. 93).
Not only does she apply this philosophy to altruism, she condemns any effort that “motivates a collectivized soul” (Rand, 1964, p. 97). To wit, Rand delivers scathing commentary regarding political and governmental entities that collectively determine the rights and responsibilities of men who should be making such decisions for themselves. Many view her as an extremist and dismiss her candor as fanaticism. Recent societal trends and events lend credence to her philosophy and provide substance for fertile discourse.
The conflicts between the United States and the Middle East provide a starting point to examine the ethics of the collectivized mind. In 1989, Operation Desert Storm reopened a period of unrest between the United States and Iraq that was unrivaled in terms of violence since the Iranian Hostage Crisis under the Carter Administration. Nineteen years later, the United States is again involved in a Middle Eastern military contest. According to the Bush Administration, the justification was to secure Saddam Hussein’s weapons of mass destruction and to liberate the Iraqi people. The President and the houses of Congress, through the powers bestowed upon them by the Constitution, have the “right” to declare war and mobilize troops. And in 2002, that is exactly what they did, in the interest of society and the infamous “public good.”
In 2008, no weapons fitting the description of those used to alarm U.S. citizens have ever been found; the people of Iraq are embroiled in a civil war that has decimated its infrastructure; and gasoline has reached unprecedented highs that have destabilized the U.S. economy to the verge of recession. The corpses of more than 4,000 U.S. soldiers hang in the balance.
A man’s life is all that he truly, truly owns and should be his to live as he chooses. Rand’s position is that nature does not guarantee security, comfort or life to any living being and that man should not presume to undertake such a challenge as well (Rand, 1964). Yet, the “collectivized soul” of governmental and public entities, galvanized by their constitutionally imbued powers, sacrifice men’s lives in the name of “the public good” without so much as a backwards glance. The government might make a better case for its destructive patronization if patriotism were a factor of this equation; i.e., if Americans were sacrificing their lives for other American citizens. Yet, this is not the case.
Collectivism reduces men’s lives to nothing more significant than pawns in a game of chess. As such, they are nameless, indistinguishable and disposable. In no other context is this more apparent than in the realm of war. Hence, the collectivized mind, consisting of those who have been elected to represent the interests of the general populace, abandon reason in favor of whim as the rationale for action. Therefore, reasons that are meritless and unprincipled become as good as any. Arguably, none of the “representatives” ever feel the direct impact of their collectivized ruthlessness. Those who determine which public interests to validate also appoint those who will be sacrificed to satisfy them; interestingly, they do not appoint themselves. War is the antithesis of Objectivism and collectivized ethics is the vehicle used to mask the subterfuge of good will. Rand states, “Once, when Barbara Branden was asked by a student: “What will happen to the poor in an Objectivist society?” She answered, “If you want to help them, you will not be stopped” (1964, p. 93). If the question of war were substituted in the above quote, the same response would be appropriate.
Racism
Racism is the seventeenth entry in The Virtue of Selfishness (1964) and is a cogent, riveting commentary on a practice that has illuminated the hypocrisy of a nation that dares to declare the equality of men, yet acts in ways that denote heinous distinction. According to Rand:
Racism is the lowest, most crudely primitive form of collectivism. It is the notion of ascribing moral, social or political significance to a man’s genetic lineage – the notion that a man’s intellectual and characterological traits are produced and transmitted by his internal body chemistry. Which means, in practice, that a man is to be judged, not by his own character and actions, but by the characters and actions of a collective of ancestors. (Rand, 1964, p. 147)
Rand argues that racists reduce themselves and those they regard as inferior to “mindless aggregates of chemicals” (Rand, 1964, p. 148). Regardless of the declaration they attempt to prove, racists are grounded in the theory that race is the determining factor of the purported superiority or inferiority. In doing so, they nullify the value of the mind as man’s definitive essence. This speaks directly to Objectivism’s metaphysical elements. Objectivism holds that a man is no more and no less than his cognitive capabilities demonstrate. This, in part, is what gives meaning to his life. Rand uses numerous examples to illustrate how racists attempt to validate their superiority over other groups of people by referencing genetics, historical achievement and collective intelligence. Consistent with research and prevailing societal thought, Rand states that physiological and biological factors have no bearing on an individual’s intelligence. The essay continues with Rand making other familiar arguments against racism. She submits individualism and laissez-faire capitalism to remedy the inequity.
Taking an unanticipated epistemological turn, Rand focuses her criticism on America’s African-American population. She begins the tirade by stating:
In the absence of any coherent political philosophy, every economic group has been acting as its own destroyer, selling out its future for some monetary privilege. The policy of the businessmen has, for some time, been the most suicidal one in this respect. But it has been surpassed by the current policy of the Negro leaders. (Rand, 1964, p. 153)
Rand explains that so- called “Negro leaders,” in a desperate yet righteous effort to correct past wrongs and equalize their status, began to demand equality conditioned upon their collective minority status. These conditional demands, initially referenced as quotas, have morphed variously over the years to what we know as civil rights, affirmative action and reverse discrimination. According to Rand, “That absurdly evil policy is destroying the moral base of the Negroes’ fight. Their case rested on the principle of individual rights. If they demand the violation of the rights of others, they negate and forfeit their own” (Rand, 1964, p. 156).
She summates that this change in the course of events makes the Negro as racist as those responsible for his historical disenfranchisement and concludes that the remedy for racism lies simply in the recognition and endowment of individual rights to every man.
Rand’s analysis and argument of the issue of racism makes sense, even the disquieting pronouncement of “Negroes” adopting racist platforms to gain equality. It is simply a more cogitative expression of the ill-advised adage to “fight fire with fire.” The problem lies in the quasi-solution she offers to quash sentiments that have flourished for centuries in generations of men who see no reason to change. How does one go about the task of responding on command to Rand’s advice? This is akin to the physician telling the anorexic to eat, the master commanding his dog to “stay”, or the teacher admonishing mischievous children to be good with the expectation that after uttering the words, their work is done. It just is not that simple. According to the Bible, only God said, “Let there be light” with immediate results.
In a society of free men, what individual or entity can dictate and regulate thought? The government can levy taxes, regulate trade and force unfunded mandates but it cannot make a man think and accept something he does not believe. Objectivism celebrates man’s mind, his intellect; this ability, however, is laudable only if it exemplifies Rand’s concepts. Just as nature provides no guarantees, Objectivism cannot guarantee that free minds will make the same choices, rationally-based or not. Since rational and consistent thought is not a “given” we are still left to ponder the “Negroes’” dilemma of eradicating racism without becoming racist (Rand, 1964).
Rand presents scenarios and solutions in the context of optimal conditions. Based on the above argument, what recourse do the disenfranchised (Negroes) pursue when the controlled experiment, so to speak, does not yield the anticipated result? Since he cannot force sensible, rational thought upon those who reject it, is it then the Negro’s fate to wait in the hope that change will happen one day? If so, should he also hope that he lives long enough to realize the quality of life that is rightfully his, as a human being, to enjoy now? One must realize that hope is not a strategy and that change is incumbent upon some action that African-Americans must initiate. Rand’s suggestion is merely the statement of an ideal and, as such, holds little value. It is the end without the means to get there. This fundamental flaw debunks her entire argument. Because the end of the essay is not as coherent as its initial points, one is left to ask, “If not this (the Negroes’ misdirected attempts at equality), what then?” Another question, used in the essay as a quotation from the New York Times, poses,
But the question must be not whether a group recognizable in color, features or culture has its rights as a group. No, the question is whether any American individual, regardless of color, features or culture, is deprived of his rights as American. (Rand, 1964, p. 157)
Is there any minority who has not, at one time or another, felt the implosive impact of the answer? If Rand’s answer is the only resolution, equality for minorities may well remain a variable that is dependent upon the decisions and actions of other men.
Concluding Remarks
The Virtue of Selfishness (1964) is Ayn Rand’s commentary on the philosophy of Objectivism as it relates to myriad social, societal and individual issues that provide the parameters of man’s life. Her postulates cannot be ignored, regardless of the audience’s personal beliefs, and always invite spirited debate. Her ideas regarding collectivism and racism provide rational analysis of the issues. The inherent problems with some of her arguments reveal that Objectivism cannot be generally applied to every situation. Instead, it is a philosophy that must be put to the test with every scenario.
References
Rand, A. (1957). Atlas shrugged. New York: Signet.
Rand, A. (1964). The virtue of selfishness. New York: Signet.
Rand, A. (n.d.). Objectivism. In Wikipedia [Web]. Retrieved March 4, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivism
Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, National FORUM Journals, Houston, Texas. www.nationalforum.com
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 26 (1) 2008
The Virtue of Selfishness from a Humanitarian’s View
Alex Torrez
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Prairie View, Texas
Assistant Superintendent
Clear Creek Independent School District
Houston, Texas
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Prairie View, Texas
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
College of Education and Professional Studies
Central Washington University
________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this article is to examine the philosophy of objectivism as presented in Ayn Rand’s The Virtue of Selfishness (1964). Ayn Rand’s philosophy is centered on the objectivist ethics which advocate that man must be rationally selfish in order to insure survival. This philosophy contradicts the American spirit of giving to improve the well being of humankind by the gift of time, wealth or efforts. How do philosophies of humanitarians and philanthropist such as Mother Teresa, Bill Gates, Bill Buffet, and Theodore Roosevelt conflict with the objectivist philosophy? ________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Rand’s novel, The Virtue of Selfishness (1964), centers on the concept of objectivism and the virtue of selfishness. Individualism focused on survival by one’s mind and avoiding the people who are incapable of providing for themselves which she characterizes as looters. Based on the fundamental beliefs of objectivism how would people such as Mother Teresa, Bill Gates, and Bill Buffet, the most generous philanthropist, who has personally donated more the 30 billion dollars to improve health care, education and address extreme poverty be categorized.
Purpose of this Article
The purpose of this article is to examine the philosophy of objectivism as presented in Ayn Rand’s The Virtue of Selfishness (1964). Ayn Rand’s philosophy is centered on the objectivist ethics which advocate that man must be rationally selfish in order to insure survival. This philosophy contradicts the American sprit of giving to improve the well being of humankind by the gift of one’s time, wealth or efforts. How do philosophies of humanitarians and philanthropist such as Mother Teresa, Bill Gates, Bill Buffet, and Theodore Roosevelt conflict with the objectivist philosophy?
Ayn Rand
Ayn Rand was born in St. Petersburg, Russia, on February 2, 1905. At the age of nine she discovered her love of writing and decided to pursue a career as an author. As an eyewitness to both the Kerensky and Bolshevik Revolution and the establishment of Communism she suffered the results of an oppressive government. The final Communist victory brought the confiscation of her father's pharmacy and periods of near-starvation for her family. A product of Soviet Russia her writings are a reflection and interpretation of the events she witnessed during her youth. Rand’s distrust of government and society are obvious in her writings. The common theme in her writing is the focus of the hero or heroes who are tortured by a society that fails to understand their individualism and need to be selfish. In her book, The Fountainhead, she presented the character of the architect, Howard Roark ,for the first time as the kind of hero whose depiction was the chief goal of her writing: the ideal man, as "he could be and ought to be" (The Ayn Rand Institute, 1995).
Objectivism and Philanthropy
Bill Gates and Warren Buffet have donated over 60 billion dollars combined to health, education, and helping address poverty. Both men have stated that they plan to donate all their wealth to decreasing the impact of poverty and improving education around the world. Bill Gates with his ability to be innovative in the field of technology and Buffet who is nick named the Oracle of Omaha for his ability to make sound investments. Gates and Buffet did not inherit their wealth but earned it through their own innovation and efforts. The breed of men Any Rand would have identified as men of the mind. To the benefit of the world these men do not adhere to philosophy of objectivism. Whether or not it is the main purpose of these two individuals to help others is beside the point. The fact that they do so with such generosity indicates that they believe that there is an end beyond their own being and accomplishments. The first sentences below are those of an objectivist point of view in regards to helping others. The second sentences are those of Bill Gates a humanitarian who values mankind more than his accomplishments and wealth.
Because a genuinely selfish man chooses his goals by the guidance of reason and because the interests of rational men do not clash-other men may often benefit from his actions. But the benefit of other men is not his primary purpose or goal; his own benefit is his primary purpose and the conscious goal directing his action. (Rand, 1961, p. 67)
And I hope you will come back here to Harvard 30 years from now and reflect on what you have done with your talent and your energy. I hope you will judge yourselves not on your professional accomplishments alone, but also on how well you have addressed the world’s deepest inequities … on how well you treated people a world away who have nothing in common with you but their humanity. (The Harvard University Gazette, 2007, June 7)
Objectivist and Poverty
If a person were to ask an objectivist a question regarding poverty, handicapped, or the mentally ill, the response could be such as the one provided by Barbara Branden, “If you want to help them, you will not be stopped” (Rand, 1961, p. 93). The objectivist would tell you that,
Since nature does not guarantee automatic security, success and survival to any human being, it is only the dictatorial presumptuousness and the moral cannibalism of the altruist-collectivist code that permits a man to suppose (or idly daydream) that he can somehow guarantee such security to some men at the expense of others. (Rand, 1961, p.94)
Guaranteeing such security for the poor, ailing, and orphaned children of the world was the calling Mother Teresa lived to fulfill. Establishing missions of hope and growing the “The Missionaries of Charity, whose primary task was to love and care for those persons nobody was prepared to look after” (Nobel Prize.org) is one of Mother Teresa’s gifts to the world. The Missionaries of Charity has established missions of hope around the world including communist countries such as the former Soviet Union, Albania, and Cuba. Giving for Mother Teresa and those who follow in her convictions can be categorized as much more important than financial assistance. The gift of unconditional love, physical assistance, spiritual guidance, and the gift of hope for those who have no one else is the greatest gift that can be received or given. Barbara Branden “If you want to help them, you will not be stopped” (Rand, 1961, p. 93). One women, Mother Teresa challenged society to see the many issues that need to be addressed for the betterment of humanity. What kind of society would we live in if the majority lived by the philosophy that helping others except by chance is in one’s best interest?
Objectivism and Society
“If some men are entitled by right to the products of the work of others, it means that those others are deprived of rights and condemned to slave labor” (Rand, 1961, p 113). The preceding comment was Ayn Rand’s reaction to Franklin Roosevelt’s declaration and reaffirmation of the economic bill of rights. The rights are as follows:
1. The right to a useful and remunerative job in the industries of shops or farms or mines of the nation.
2. The right to earn enough to provide adequate food and clothing and recreation.
3. The right of every farmer to raise and sell his products at a return which will give him and his family a decent living.
4. The right of every businessman, large and small to trade in an atmosphere of freedom from unfair competition and domination by monopolies at home and abroad.
5. The right of every family to a decent home.
6. The right to adequate medical care and the opportunity to achieve and enjoy good heath.
7. The right to adequate protection from the economic fears of the old age, sickness, accidents and unemployment.
8. The right to a good education.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion the fundamental spirit of giving, servant hood, or being a humanitarian has had an impact on the lives of millions and is a corner stone for making the United States a nation that values the importance of helping people pursue the American dream. The Statue of Liberty reads:
Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free. The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest-tossed to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door.
We live in a nation that has been built on the idea that everyone has the right to the pursuit of happiness. No where does it state that one man must be sacrificed for the benefit of another. The fact that people choose to be humanitarians, philanthropists, and servants gives people hope for a better society, nation, and ultimately world.
References
Rand, A. (1957). The virtue of selfishness. New York: Penguin Group.
Ayn Rand Institute (ARI) (1995). A brief biography of Ayn Rand. Retrieved March 18, 2008, from www.aynrand.org/site
Biography of the winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 (1979). Retrieved March 18, 2008, from nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1979/teresa-bio.html
Franklin D. Roosevelt (n.d.). American Heritage Center, Incorporated. Retrieved March 23, 2008, from www.fdrheritage.org/bill of rights.htm
Remarks of Bill Gates: Harvard Commencement (2007, June 7). The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved March 18, 2008, from www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2007/06.14/99-gates.html
_______________________________________________________________________
Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, National FORUM Journals, Houston, Texas www.nationalforum.com
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research
Summer 2008
On Improving Student Grades and Graduation: A Snapshot of Minority and White Students’ Success from Supplemental Instruction at the University of Missouri at Kansas City
Russell Eisenman, PhD
University of Texas-Pan American
Department of Psychology
Edinburg, TX 78539-2999
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Prairie View, Texas
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
College of Education and Professional Studies
Central Washington University
Tyrone Tanner, EdD
Associate Professor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Prairie View, Texas
Dr. Donald F. DeMoulin
College of Education
Doctoral Faculty
Argosy University
Atlanta, Georgia
Dr. David E. Herrington
Associate Professor
Prairie View A&M University
Texas A&M University System
ABSTRACT
The brief article focuses on improving student grades and graduation relative to minority and white students’ success from supplemental instruction at the University of Missouri at Kansas City. The authors discussed effective ways to help students who score low on standard examinations.
________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Supplemental Instruction was created by Deanna C. Martin at the University of Missouri at Kansas City (UMKC) in 1973, aimed at preventing minority student attrition in the schools of medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry. Supplemental Instruction (SI) does not look for students at high risk for failure, as do programs that first test students for, say, English and mathematics skills and then assign those who do not pass to developmental courses. Rather, SI targets high risk courses, where many students make grades of D or F, or drop the class. SI involves regularly scheduled out-of-class peer taught sessions, which any student can attend (Jacobs, 2007; Martin & Arendale, 1994; Martin & Gravina, 1990; Martin, Blanc, & Arendale, 1994). We looked at data from UMKC on students in general: their grades and their attrition, as well as data on minority students.
The Findings
We appreciate that the SI program at UMKC gave us permission to analyze their data.
Grades and Attrition
Supplemental Instruction students received better final course grades with fewer grades of D, F, or Withdraw. For all colleges at UMKC, 2875 students were tested and 38% of the Non-Supplemental Instruction students made a final grade of D, F, or Withdraw, compared to 23.7% of students in SI. On a 4-point scale (with 4=A), the mean final course grade of non-SI students was 1.85, and the mean final grade of SI students was 2.30.
Regarding attrition, we can look at the graduation rates. For Non-SI students, within six years 18.2% had graduated vs. 30.6% for the SI students.
Minority Students
According to May Garland, for 299 minority students, the mean grade of minority students who took SI was 2.02 vs. 1.55 for minority students who did not take SI. For minority students who took SI, 36% made a grade of D, F, or Withdraw vs. 43% for minority students who did not take SI.
Concluding Remarks
The results show that Supplemental Instruction, as done at the University of Missouri at Kansas City is effective in 1. helping students make better grades, 2. helping students graduate, and 3.helping minority students. SI is an effective way to help students, in addition to the more traditional method of finding students who score low on standard exams and assigning them to remedial classes. SI makes additional peer instruction available to students who are having a difficult time in a course, and they take the SI while taking the difficult course. Students learn both what to learn and how to learn, and the data showed that this helps them succeed better in college, both in terms of grades and in terms of graduation.
References
Jacobs, G. (2007, Sept. 21). Supplemental Instruction: Overview of the model. Presentation for University of Texas System, Austin, TX.
Martin, D. C. & Arendale, D. (Eds.), (1994). Supplemental Instruction: Increasing achievement and retention. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Martin, D. C. & Gravina, M. (1990). Serving students where they fail: In class. Thresholds in Education, 16(3), 26-30.
Martin, D. C., Blanc, R., & Arendale, D. (1994). Mentorship in the classroom: Making the implicit explicit. Teaching Excellence, 6(1), 1-2.
Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, National FORUM Journals, Houston, Texas www.nationalforum.com
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research
Summer 2008
On Improving Student Grades and Graduation: A Snapshot of Minority and White Students’ Success from Supplemental Instruction at the University of Missouri at Kansas City
Russell Eisenman, PhD
University of Texas-Pan American
Department of Psychology
Edinburg, TX 78539-2999
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Prairie View, Texas
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
College of Education and Professional Studies
Central Washington University
Tyrone Tanner, EdD
Associate Professor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Prairie View, Texas
Dr. Donald F. DeMoulin
College of Education
Doctoral Faculty
Argosy University
Atlanta, Georgia
Dr. David E. Herrington
Associate Professor (Tenured)
PVAMU - Texas A&M University System
ABSTRACT
The brief article focuses on improving student grades and graduation relative to minority and white students’ success from supplemental instruction at the University of Missouri at Kansas City. The authors discussed effective ways to help students who score low on standard examinations.
________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Supplemental Instruction was created by Deanna C. Martin at the University of Missouri at Kansas City (UMKC) in 1973, aimed at preventing minority student attrition in the schools of medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry. Supplemental Instruction (SI) does not look for students at high risk for failure, as do programs that first test students for, say, English and mathematics skills and then assign those who do not pass to developmental courses. Rather, SI targets high risk courses, where many students make grades of D or F, or drop the class. SI involves regularly scheduled out-of-class peer taught sessions, which any student can attend (Jacobs, 2007; Martin & Arendale, 1994; Martin & Gravina, 1990; Martin, Blanc, & Arendale, 1994). We looked at data from UMKC on students in general: their grades and their attrition, as well as data on minority students.
The Findings
We appreciate that the SI program at UMKC gave us permission to analyze their data.
Grades and Attrition
Supplemental Instruction students received better final course grades with fewer grades of D, F, or Withdraw. For all colleges at UMKC, 2875 students were tested and 38% of the Non-Supplemental Instruction students made a final grade of D, F, or Withdraw, compared to 23.7% of students in SI. On a 4-point scale (with 4=A), the mean final course grade of non-SI students was 1.85, and the mean final grade of SI students was 2.30.
Regarding attrition, we can look at the graduation rates. For Non-SI students, within six years 18.2% had graduated vs. 30.6% for the SI students.
Minority Students
According to May Garland, for 299 minority students, the mean grade of minority students who took SI was 2.02 vs. 1.55 for minority students who did not take SI. For minority students who took SI, 36% made a grade of D, F, or Withdraw vs. 43% for minority students who did not take SI.
Concluding Remarks
The results show that Supplemental Instruction, as done at the University of Missouri at Kansas City is effective in 1. helping students make better grades, 2. helping students graduate, and 3.helping minority students. SI is an effective way to help students, in addition to the more traditional method of finding students who score low on standard exams and assigning them to remedial classes. SI makes additional peer instruction available to students who are having a difficult time in a course, and they take the SI while taking the difficult course. Students learn both what to learn and how to learn, and the data showed that this helps them succeed better in college, both in terms of grades and in terms of graduation.
References
Jacobs, G. (2007, Sept. 21). Supplemental Instruction: Overview of the model. Presentation for University of Texas System, Austin, TX.
Martin, D. C. & Arendale, D. (Eds.), (1994). Supplemental Instruction: Increasing achievement and retention. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Martin, D. C. & Gravina, M. (1990). Serving students where they fail: In class. Thresholds in Education, 16(3), 26-30.
Martin, D. C., Blanc, R., & Arendale, D. (1994). Mentorship in the classroom: Making the implicit explicit. Teaching Excellence, 6(1), 1-2.
Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, National FORUM Journals, Houston, Texas www.nationalforum.com
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD & David E. Herrington, PhD - National Impact
Faculty Mentor for Doctoral Student Publication
Herrington, David E. with Parson, Gail & Kritsonis, William (2006) Successful African-American Males in Post-secondary education: An Examination of Personal Strategies, Attitudes, and Behaviors. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 3 (6).
Herrington, D. with Petterway, Arthur & Kritsonis, William, & (2006). The
Impact of High Stakes Testing on the Academic Achievement of English Language Learners in Texas Public Education: National Implications. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 3 (6).
Herrington, David E. with Nickson, Lautrice & Kritsonis, William (2006). Retaining Special Education Teachers in Public Education in the United States: A National Crisis. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student
Research, 3 (6).
Herrington, David E. with Salinas, Roselia & Kritsonis,William (2006). Teacher Quality
as a Predictor of Student Achievement in Urban Schools: A National Focus. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 3 (6). (ERIC Clearinghouse Accession Number: ED 491 993)
Herrington, David with Hughes, Teresa A., Butler, Norman L. & Kritsonis, William A.
(2007, Spring). Primary and Secondary Education in Canada and Poland Compared: International Implications, The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1).
Herrington, David with Hughes, Teresa A., Butler, Norman L. & Kritsonis, William
A.(2007, Spring). Cheating on Examinations in Two Polish Higher Education Schools, The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1)
Herrington, David with Idaka, Idaka I., Joshua, Monday T. &Kritsonis, William A.
(2007, Spring). Attitude of Academic Staff in Nigerian Tertiary Educational Institutions to Student Evaluation of Instruction (SEI), The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1).
Herrington, David with Butler Norman L. Hughes, Teresa A. & Kritsonis, William A.
(2007, Spring). Native and Non-native Teachers of English in Polish Schools-Personal Reflections: International Educational Implications,The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1).
Herrington, David with Joshua, Akon M., Joshua, Monday T. & Kritsonis, William A.
(2007, Spring) Assessment of the Depth of Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Possessed by Secondary School Students in Southern Cross River State, Nigeria. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1).
Herrington, David E. with Griffith, Kimberley, Brown, Veda & Kritsonis, William A. (2007, Spring). Mixed-Methods Research Designs. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1).
Herrington, David with Joshua, Monday T., Joshua, Akon M. & Kritsonis, William A.
(2007, Spring). Use of Student Achievement Scores as Basis for Assessing Teachers’ Instructional Effectiveness: Issues and Research Results, The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1).
Herrington, David, with Joshua, Monday T., Ubi, Issaac O. & Kritsonis, William A.
(2007, Spring).Gender, Personality, and Neurotic Factors in Mathematics Achievement Among Secondary School Students in Calabar, Nigeria The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1).
Herrington, David with Obo, Fidelis E., Joshua, Monday T. & Kritsonis, William A.
(2007, Spring). Some Student-Personal Variables as Predictors of Mathematics Achievement in Secondary Schools in Central Cross River State - Nigeria, The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1).
Herrington, David, with Hughes, Teresa A.,Butler, Norman L., Kritsonis, Mary A.
Kritsonis & William A.(2007, Spring). Religious Education in Government –Run Primary and Secondary Schools in Poland and Canada (Ontario and Quebec) – An International Focus, The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1).
Herrington, David, with Hughes, Teresa A., Butler, Norman L. & Kritsonis, William
(2007, Spring). Education in Canada: A Lecture to the Polish Comparative Education Society, 30 January 2006 and the Foreign Languages Department, AGH University of Science and Technology, Cracow, Poland, The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1).
Herrington, David E. with Anthony, Taiwanna D. & Kritsonis, William (2007). National Cry for Help: Psychological Issues as They Relate To Education--
A Realistic Approach to Understanding and Coping with African American Males. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1). (ERIC Clearinghouse Accession Number: ED 495 296)
Herrington, David E. with Anthony, Taiwanna D. & Kritsonis, William A.
(2007, Spring). Postmodernism and National Implications for Educational Leadership. The Lamar Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1).
(ERIC Clearinghouse Accession Number: ED 495 291)
Herrington, David E. with Anthony, Taiwanna D. & Kritsonis, William A.
(2007, Spring). An Analysis of Human Resource Management: Involving Administrative Leadership as a Means to Practical Applications. The Lamar Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1). (ERIC Clearinghouse Accession Number: ED 495 294)
Herrington, David E. with Anthony, Taiwanna D. & Kritsonis, William A.
(2007, Spring). How to implement the “Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning” in Human Resource Management – Ten Recommendations. The Lamar Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1). (ERIC Clearinghouse Accession Number: ED 495 293)
Herrington, David E. with Anthony, Taiwanna D. & Kritsonis, William A. (2007, Spring). Improving the Self-Efficacy and Retention of Alternatively Certified Novice Teachers within an Inner City School District: A Mixed Methods Assessment of the Effectiveness of Strategic e-Mentoring. The Lamar Electronic Journal of Student Research 4 (1).
Herrington, David E. with Edgerson, David & Kritsonis, William (2006). The Critical Role of the Teacher-Principal Relationship in the Improvement of Student Achievement in Public Schools of the United States. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 19 (3E).
Herrington, David E. with Hughes, Teresa. & Kritsonis, William., &. (2006) The Importance of Learning Community Ideology in the Transformation of Public Schools in the United States. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research 3 (6).
Herrington, David E. with Hiel, Edwin (1997, August). Plausible Uses and Limitations of Videoconferencing as a Tool for Achieving Technology Transfer. Journal of Extension 35 (4). (ERIC Clearinghouse Accession Number: EJ 584 563)
Herrington, David E. with Beard, Charles (1996, spring). Who Can We Trust: A Look at How Schools Select Technology Services. Business Sense.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD & David E. Herrington, PhD
National Refereed, Juried, Blind-Reviewed, Peer-Evaluated and Assessed National Publications
Publications
Selected Recent Peer-Reviewed, Refereed Journal Articles
2008
Herrington, David E. with Kritsonis, William Allan (2008). Essential Reflections for Non-Profits and Schools Prior to Writing and Submitting Grant Proposals. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal 21 (3).
Herrington, David E. with Egbe, Rachel, Ivy, Adam, Moreland, Brandi, Willis, LaShonda (2008). Ten Things to Consider When Developing A Survey or Assessment Instrument. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal 21 (3).
Herrington, David E. with Glasco, Rhonda L. & Kritsonis,William Allan (2008). Developing and Nurturing a Common Vision for Technology Integration in Education. National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal 21 (3).
Herrington, David E. with Jedlika, Keith & Kritsonis, William Allan (2008). The
Persistence of Teacher Under-utilization of Technologies in the Classroom. National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal 18 (3).
Herrington, David E. with Smith, Monique & Kritsonis, William Allan & Tanner,
Tyrone (2008). National Implications: Ten Things to Consider When Teaching Mathematics to African American Students. National FORUM of Multicultural Education Journal 5 (2).
Herrington, David E. with Puentes, Hasid & William Allan Kritsonis (2007-2008).
Student Mobility and Academic Achievement at a Selected Elementary Campus: A Case Study with National Implications. National FORUM Applied Educational Research Journal 21 (1).
Herrington, David E. with Ivy, Adam & Kritsonis, William Allan (2007). The Challenge of Building Professional Learning Communities: Getting Started. National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal 26 (4).
Herrington, David E. with Bowman, Etima & Kritsonis, William Allan (2008). Seven Ways to Increase Minority Student Participation in Extracurricular Activities. National Forum of Teacher Education Journal 18 (3).
Herrington, David E. with Kritsonis, William Allan & Tanner, Tyrone (2008). National
Recommendations for Deconstructing Eduational Administration Courses: Re- centering to Address the Needs of Student. National Forum of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal 26 (4).
2007
Herrington, David E. with Lupe Garza Brown & William Allan Kritsonis (2007). Campus Level Grant Writing: Leveraging Teacher Talent to Access External Funding. Journal of Border Educational Research (In submission).
Herrington, David E. (2007). In Quest of Funding Sources for Your Campus Needs:
A Primer on Demystifying the Grant Writing Process. Instructional Leader 20 (5).
Herrington, David E. with Proctor, Kathleen Kidd (2007, September). Increasing the
Role of Public School Principals and Teachers in Addressing the Needs of Homeless and Foster Children. Instructional Leader 20 (4).
Herrington, David E. with Kritsonis, William A. & Williams, Monica G. (Spring, 2007). Oral History: A Viable Methodology for 21st Century Educational Administration Research. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student
Research 4 (1).
2006
Herrington, David E. with Herrington, Kathleen Kidd (2006, Fall). Addressing the Unremitting Educational Neglect of Homeless and Foster children: Toward a Culture of Urgency and Caring. Journal of Border Educational Research 5 (1).
Herrington, David E. with Kritsonis, W. A. (2006). A National Perspective for
Improving Working Relationships Between Educational Researchers and Institutional Review Board Members. National Forum of Applied Educational Research Journal 19 (3), 1- 5. (ERIC Clearinghouse Accession Number:
ED 491 999).
Herrington, David E. with Herrington, Kathleen Kidd (2006, Fall). Coming to Terms
With No Child Left Behind: Learning to Teach the Invisible Children. National Forum for Special Education Journal 18 (1). (ERIC Clearinghouse Accession Number: ED 495 500).
Herrington, David E. with Kritsonis, W.A. (2006). Serendipitous Findings of
School-University Collaboration: A Case Study with National
Implications for Supporting Novice Teachers. National Forum for Educational Administration and Supervision Journal 24 (4).
Herrington, David E. with Hughes, T. A. Kritsonis, W. A., & Kritsonis, M. A.
(2006). A National Perspective for Cultivating Working Relationships Between Educational Researchers and Institutional Review Board Members. The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 3 (6). (ERIC Clearinghouse Accession Number: ED 495 500).
Herrington, David E. with Johnson, Clarence & Kritsonis, William (2006). National Educational Dilemma: What Does a Student Need to Know: Ways of Knowing Through Realms of Meaning. National Forum of Teacher Education Journal. 17 (3), 1-5.
2005
Herrington, David E. with Ross, William (2005). Comparative Study of Pre- professional Counselor/Administrator Perceptions Regarding the Role of the Counselor in Public Schools. National Forum of Educational Administration
and Supervision Journal 25E (4). (ERIC Clearinghouse Accession Number: ED 495 485)
Herrington, David E. with Proctor, Kathleen Kidd (2005). University-School-Center Collaboration in Support of Identifying Minority Students with Hearing, Language or Speech Difficulties: Fulfilling the Spirit of Leaving No Child Behind. National Forum for Teacher Education Journal 19 (3E). (ERIC
Clearinghouse Accession Number: ED 495 486)
Herrington, David E. (2005). A Ten-Year Retrospective on Uses of Videoconferencing In Support of the Distance Learning Mission at an Agricultural Center Within a Land¬ Grant University System. National Forum of Applied Educational Research Journal 19 (3E).
Herrington, David E. (2004-2005). Educational Administration Candidates in Multiple
Roles as Evaluators, Learners, and Consumers Within a Principal Preparation Program. National Forum of Educational Leadership and Supervision
Journal, 25E, (4E) (ERIC Clearinghouse Accession Number: ED 495 490)
Diverse Education – Cited, William Allan Kritsonis, PhD & Monica G. Williams
From Diverse Online
Feature Stories
A FUNDRAISING BLUEPRINT
By Peter Galuszka
May 1, 2008, 12:53
Howard University sets the bar high for its largest ever capital campaign, and now plans to share the secrets of its success with fellow HBCUs.
From left, President of Howard University, H. Patrick Swygert, Richard D. Parsons, chairman of the Board of Trustees’ Development Committee, and former board chairman and current trustee Frank Savage celebrate the Campaign for Howard’s success at its halfway point.
In the fall of 2001, top administrators and trustees from Howard University secluded themselves at a retreat at the posh Lansdowne Resort in the rolling Virginia countryside near Washington to discuss the future of their school. There they planted the seeds of what was to become the most successful fundraising campaign ever undertaken by a historically Black university.
For Howard President H. Patrick Swygert, the campaign was the latest in a series of fundraising efforts that he had started since 1995 when he took over as president. At the time, he recalls, “It was clear we needed a change. Only 4 to 5 percent of the alumni were participating. About 90 percent didn’t participate at all.”
The brainstorming at the Lansdowne retreat created an innovative, multifaceted and complex campaign that ended up seeing the school reach its goal of $250 million early and then surpass it by $22 million. The “Campaign for Howard” also serves as a yardstick and an incentive for other HBCUs to improve their own fundraising efforts.
At the retreat, Swygert drew upon old and young blood. Dr. James Cheek, former Howard president and now-president emeritus, and Dr. Roger Estep, a veterinarian who served as vice president for development and university relations, weighed in with their ideas. Sophisticated financial insight came from corporate luminary and Chairman of the Board of Trustees Richard D. Parsons. As the chairman of Time Warner, Parsons is one of the most prominent African-Americans in global business whose exploits have been fodder for many cover stories in national business magazines.
Participants were thinking big, indeed. It was clear that they were creating something broad-based that was to be a break from the past.
“We talked about setting a campaign goal of $100 million, then $125 million,” Swygert remembers. “Then we decided, in a burst of overconfidence that the goal should be $250 million. This would give us a stretch goal,” he says. Even the campaign slogan they came up with was tailored to let alumni know just who they were and how much they had to offer. It read: “Leadership for America and the Global Community.” The campaign kicked off in March 2002 with an end date of Dec. 31, 2007.
Not only was the $250 million goal reached 10 months before the deadline, it was surpassed by $22 million. The funds enriched Howard’s endowment to a total of $532 million, the largest of any HBCU. As many as 81 individuals pledged more than $1 million each. Swygert, who will retire in June, is now laying the foundation for another campaign aimed at $1 billion in donations that would double Howard’s endowment.
Why not? he asks. “There are about 31 university campaigns right now that have goals of more than $1 billion,” he says. Harvard University’s endowment is a whopping $34 billion and No. 2 Yale has $22 billion. Even Georgetown University just across the city from Howard has an endowment of $1 billion.
Setting an Example
Howard University President H. Patrick Swygert, who is set to retire in June, is laying the foundation for another campaign that would double the university’s endowment.
Howard’s success offers many examples for its fellow HBCUs. Swygert says he has talked informally to the presidents of other schools about his experience. Meanwhile, Howard officials are taking apart the campaign and are expected to publish a report on lessons learned that will be made available to other HBCUs in coming months.
There’s little doubt that other HBCUs could use some help. Alumni giving typically falls short of other schools. Endowments are comparatively small. While predominately White institutions have giving rates ranging from 20 to 60 percent, HBCUs typically fall below 10 percent, according to a 2006 study by Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, professor of educational leadership at Prairie View A&M University, and Monica G. Williams, a doctoral student at the university. At Howard, campaign leaders achieved their goals by tapping a number of resources. One was hiring Virgil Ecton, vice president for university advancement, a fundraising guru with experience at the United Negro College Fund. Another was upgrading the alumni offices’ information technology so it would make solicitations cheaply and easily. As Swygert notes, of 66,000 or so alumni, they only had the e-mail addresses of 7,000. “Now we have 30,000 addresses,” he says.
Direct, personal community outreach was also essential. Swygert, Parsons and other fundraisers held a series of meet-and-greet sessions with Howard alumni in Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, Miami, New York and Philadelphia. Renee Higginbotham- Brooks, vice chairman of the board of trustees and a Texas lawyer, remembers one alumni outreach meeting in Miami in 2004. “It really surprised everyone. It was the first time Howard had ever done that. By the end of the meeting, we had raised $7 million,” she says.
Another memorable fundraising event, says Higginbotham-Brooks, was held at the gleaming, new corporate headquarters of Time Warner in Manhattan. Trustee head Parsons arranged for the confab among his many contributions to the campaign. Swygert says Parsons played a critical role by staying the course as the head of the campaign throughout its five-year run.
Indeed, Parsons, one of the most prominent business leaders in the United States, may have been the single most important reason for the campaign’s success. At the time he took over the campaign, he was deeply involved in the troubled merger of Time Warner with AOL and was busy rationalizing the acquisition. Parsons has held a number of prominent posts in state and federal government and serves on the boards of such major companies as Citigroup Inc. and Estée Lauder Inc. He has gained plenty of fundraising experience as chairman of the Apollo Theater Foundation and as a board member of The Museum of Modern Art and the American Museum of Natural History in New York.
What’s more, Swygert says, Parsons remained as head of the campaign for its entire seven-year duration. Having one person in charge consistently made a major difference.
“There were no revolving chairs, and I can’t stress that enough,” says Swygert.
“The Campaign for Howard was a university- wide effort, involving the entire board, the administration and faculty, and students and alumni,” replied Parsons via e-mail to Diverse. “Its overwhelming success reflects the high regard in which Howard University is held by those constituencies and many other friends throughout the country.”
What’s next for Howard is planning for the next campaign, once a post-mortem is finished on the most recent one. Howard’s endowment has moved up to $532 million, up from $144 million when Swygert took over as president in 1995. He says that the nuts and bolts of the next campaign will be the brainchild of his successor. Fertile grounds for fundraising goals involve using more funds for more student scholarships. Some major universities such as Yale have announced they are wellenough endowed to start giving students from lower- and middle-income families free or cut-rate tuitions. Swygert says that as it is now, Howard’s tuition is highly competitive, but scholarships are a distinct possibility.
“You must aim high to generate energy and enthusiasm,” Swygert says, “If you are in higher education, you are an optimist.”
“Dr. Kritsonis and Monica Williams have contributed to the national debate.”
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© Copyright 2005 by DiverseEducation.com
National Leaders in Educational Leadership
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis
Professor of Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
17603 Bending Post Dr.
Houston, TX 77095
281.550.5700/832.483.7889
williamkritsonis@yahoo.com
Dr. Pamela Barber-Freeman
Associate Professor and Interim Chair
Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling
P.O. Box 519; MS 2420
Prairie View, Texas 77446
936.261.3530
ptfreeman@pvamu.edu
Dr. Mike Desiderio
Associate Professor and Chair
Department of Curriculum & Instruction
Texas A&M University - Kingsville
722 Ragland Ave 78363
Kingsville, TX
361.516.0843
Kfmfd00@tamuk.edu
Dr. Karen Osterholm
Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling
Prairie View A&M University
Prairie View, TX 77446
979-690-3610 (h) 979.224.0393 (c)
karen.osterholm@suddenlinkmail.com
Dr. Charles Beard
Senior Programmer
Texas Education Agency
14905 Alpha Collier Dr.
Austin, TX 787728
512.238.7290 (h) 512.989.7040 (c)
chbeard@austin.rr.com
Dr. Randel D. Brown
Associate Professor of Special Education
Texas A&M International University
Laredo, TX 78041
956.326.2679 (w) 956.251.0865 (c)
brown@tamiu.edu
The Wall Street Journal (2008)
The Keys to a Life Well Lived
Taking care of those you love and letting them know they’re loved, which involve self-sacrifice; holding firm to God, to your religious faith, no matter how high you rise or low you fall. This involves guts, and self-discipline, and active attention to developing and refining a conscience to whose promptings you can respond. Honoring your calling or profession by trying to do within it honorable work, which takes hard effort, and a willingness to master the ethics of your field. And enjoying life. This can be hard in America, where sometimes people are rather grim in their determination to get and to have. “Enjoy life, it’s ungrateful not to,” said Ronald Reagan.
Source: The Wall Street Journal, Saturday/Sunday, June 21 – 22, 2008, A9. Peggy Noonan – A Life’s Lesson.
Disbursed by: William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
PVAMU, Texas A&M University System
Chapter 20
The Adolescent’s Perception of Failure
The following talk was delivered by William Allan Kritsonis during the summer of 1971 at Seattle Pacific University. At the time, Kritsonis was completing the master's degree in education and the talk was given before a live audience of graduate students and professors, thus satisfying one of the special requirements needed for the degree. The talk influenced many people deeply and forced them to re-evaluate their own attitudes about success and failure.
The Adolescent’s Perception of Failure
Upwards of a thousand students commit suicide every year. They had their whole lives ahead of them, and somehow, they lost hope. No one cared, they thought; life was not worth living. They asked themselves: Is that all there is?
Suicide is certainly the ultimate self-punishment for having failed. Life was no longer worth the struggle, the effort, the will.
I would like to take a look with you at the concept of failure-at how adolescents in high school and college see it-and what we, as parents and teachers, have taught them about it.
We have all had a part in it, and we have all had to come to grips with it and to decide what failure actually means to each of us individually.
Success is important in our society, more important, surely, that the desire to live sanely and to enjoy the good things of life which one has worked for. Success for its own sake is valued-valued, and I believed at any cost, and the road to success rationalized in the name of the great American competitive way, at the expense of honest and, perhaps, sanity.
The “F” for failure has become so feared that we in education have revamped our marking system in preference for U's and E's without revamping our attitudes -attitudes of those who should know.
We are apt to be very objective when we look at our students-and we give
them what they deserve and in doing so, feel very smug. We have given out the material, we have given the examinations and now it follows, as night follows day, that we give out the marks. Yet, we forget that there is much more that a teacher gives to his or students, willingly or unwillingly. A teacher gives an example of how to look at life and at people. And if failure is viewed as the worst fate, if it is something that is given the connotation of shame, unworthiness, and hopelessness, then indeed, we have taught much more than English or history or mathematics.
Adolescence marks the trying period of search which may have the significant effects on subsequent personality structure, on later adjustments in the years that lie ahead. Probably, what brings the greatest amount of equalizing balance to the period of adolescence is the presence of significant people in the adolescent's life. Since people become so very important to him, it is the importance of some people who have that ingredient of compassion who can help the adolescent come through this unfolding, transitional period into the fullness of adult life.
The world is full of people who are fearful that they will fail at some tasks or goal and who usually manage to avoid trying for what they want because they construe failure as the worst of all possible crimes.
In a study, it was found that competitive situations around two major motives: either to achieve success... or to avoid failure. The strivers-for success were found more likely to be middle-of-the-roaders in their aspirations or ambitions, where as the failure-avoider will be either excessively cautious or extravagantly reckless in the things he tries. Because failure is painful, he will choose either extreme rather than take the 50-50 chance.
Feelings of adequacy and success may depend more on self-acceptance than on actual achievement. Regardless of actual test performance, self-accepting students tend to be optimistic, non-anxious, and non-competitive. Self-rejecting ones are anxious and unrealistic in goal-setting.
In another study, the subjects were asked to rate themselves on a list of traits as they thought they were, as they hoped they were, as they feared they were, and as they thought others regarded them. The group had first been classified as stable and unstable on the basis of a personality inventory. The stable group rated themselves higher and there was less discrepancy between their self-ratings and the way they thought others would rate them. They were also better liked, better adjusted socially, less situation dominated, and showed less defensive behavior.
Approximately half of those who enter college drop out. Many are in the highest levels of ability. When students drop out, it usually is understood that they have failed. At the college level, a great deal of attention has been given to the question: “What can we learn about those who have failed in the past that will enable us to reject similar persons who might apply for admission in the future?” Little consideration is given to the question: “What might the institution do to prevent failure, to help remedy shortcomings within the college and with the individual student, which produce failure?”
Reasons for coming to college are always multiple. Stress is usually placed on one or another of these:
- to get a better paying job
- status of a degree
- social life-all my friends are going
- avoid work
- get married
- because of parents
Many are disillusioned with what is expected of them. Many find that it's the same old things as high school-all these things which aren't practical. Others who were eager to learn find that it is not the kind of challenge they had expected.
Many entering students are sorry about the time they wasted in high school. They didn't try hard enough; they didn't apply themselves; they were more interested in athletics, social life, or other things. If we go back a bit, we find that there were many things that they were concerned about during those days-some things which were, indeed, are more important to them at the time than geometry or American history, an which sometimes were far more necessary and pressing in order that they might grow up. But, those who observe the adolescent in high school are very often unaware of what he is facing and are not able to understand why he can't buckle down. What they can't understand is that the reason is...that there are many things the adolescent is trying to accomplish and school work often provides him with no stimulation, no incentive for interest or involvement. School is just a bore! And teachers are a bore! And adults, in general, are a bore! Adults are forever talking, but what they say often doesn't seem to mean anything.
A new interest can be sparked in school when there is a teacher who does mean something. But it takes more than one teacher to make a school program relevant. When competition and success are the significant ingredients of a program, then we are apt to be creating egocentric (or self-centered) intellectuals who gloat over their achievements as they look down on those who have successfully developed feelings of worthlessness because-they have lost and lost and lost, and fear that they will probably never win-and only those who win are important.
Our task ought to be to help the adolescent to see that failure is neither good nor bad. It is, however, and inevitable fact of reality. The way we use it in our lives will determine, ultimately, its goodness or badness for us.
Each of us must learn to live with certain limitations in ability. It is only when an individual falls consistently below the norm areas that seem important to him that inferior ability constitutes a serious limitation.
From studies of both high and underachievers in high school, the pattern of the relationship between self-concept and achievement becomes clearer. There is a relationship between positive self-concept and high achievement, negative self-concept and under-achievement. The research does not indicate which is cause or effect. Chances are we can see a circular pattern beginning earlier with perception or experiences. Every experience contributes to the adolescent's evolving picture of himself, which, in turn, becomes a guide to future action.
Parental pressure for success seems to arise naturally out of a parent's desire that this child must have the best that the world has to offer, yet...in the same breath, it may be that many of them see the failure which their son or daughter may face as a failure for themselves. Many parents want their children to be a credit to them, forgetting that if a child is a credit to itself, the other will follow naturally.
Likewise, it is not important to be better than the next guy so much as it is to try to do our best. We should be our own chief and best competition. We cannot always achieve our goal, but we ought to find satisfaction in knowing we did the best we could. Too often, we are teaching the idea of striving for success in high school, in college, in athletics, in all the aspects of living, for the wrong reasons. Let's change our own attitude about success and failure.
A Thought in Words
Chance favors those in motion. Zen
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 1
Develop a Good Elementary Reading Program
Reading is the golden key to unlock doors. A child’s success in life is often determined by his or her ability to read. Since the primary years build the foundation upon which a child’s education rests, developing an effective reading program is a prime responsibility of the elementary teacher.
Research tells us that school dropouts become disenchanted, fed-up, utterly disgusted, and discouraged in school because they cannot read adequately. This is a fact! – but a fact of which elementary educators are not proud. Is there hope? Yes! Numerous school systems now employ full-time specialists in reading instruction and many schools have their own reading specialist. Is this the answer? No, it is not! The answer lies in the elementary school classroom. Students must successfully learn to read at this level in order for school systems to avoid the additional expense of hiring reading specialists at the middle, junior high, and secondary levels.
Being actively involved in the selection of new programs leads to active involvement in the total reading program when it becomes operational. Teachers must investigate different types of reading programs and evaluate them in terms of strengths, weaknesses, advantages, and disadvantages. Articles evaluating various reading programs are continually being published. Consulting these articles may help in deciding which reading program best answers class needs. This information can also be obtained through the local newspaper, educational bulletins libraries, or magazines.
When a program appears to be suitable, discuss it with the school principal, colleagues, and reading specialists. Have a qualified representative demonstrate the particular reading program or visit a school where it is currently being used. This affords the opportunity to actually see the program working, as well as to discuss its strengths and weaknesses with knowledgeable representatives or with teachers who are already using it.
Be familiar with new approaches that improve reading instruction for students. Various individualized reading programs must be studied. Be cognizant of the reading skills taught in these individualized programs and examine the basic textbooks being used. When evaluating a program, remember to consider the vocabulary builders and interest- catching factors of the total individualized reading program.
The atmosphere created in classrooms must radiate that reading is a major activity. Book clubs, posters, pageants, fairs, plays, computer fairs, book reports, and book displays help to strengthen the classroom’s reading program. Respect students’ ideas concerning reading by allowing and encouraging them to experiment. A teacher’s prime function within the classroom is to help students realize their potential and attain the highest-level possible. If elementary teachers are constantly watchful for the slightest improvement in reading and express appreciation to their students, reading will become an enjoyable and happy part of the school day for the pupil.
Children lack many reading skills and depend upon their teacher to teach them. All students must eventually master skills in phonics, note taking, outlining, map interpretation, detail reading, oral reading, auditory and visual discrimination, spelling, word recognition and word analysis, reading rate, information pinpointing, reading critically, vocabulary, comprehension skills, and many others. Teachers must have a thorough understanding of which reading skills are vital to each particular grade level. They must be familiar with the reading skills children encountered during the preceding year, as well as those that will be required in successive elementary grades. Armed with this knowledge, detailed instructional plans can be designed for teaching these basic reading skills.
Flexibility in reading is another area of concern. Children must be guided so they can read a wide variety of materials, including textbooks. When reading textbooks, they must be taught to recognize important concepts, ideas, and facts along with other essential illustrations.
Practically all reading is done for a specific purpose, whether for enjoyment or for academic reasons. Regardless of the purpose, classroom discussions offer children opportunities to develop and master special vocabulary areas.
A teacher must be aware of each student’s reading strengths and limitations. A
child must not be expected to read material beyond his or her ability. Many children experience frustration and failure in reading because they attempt to read material that is too difficult for them. One method of discovering a child’s reading ability is to have the child read, then just at the moment the child begins to have difficulty, stop him. In the next reading period begin at this point. Tape recording a student as he reads helps in oral reading. When the tape is played back for the student, he often realizes his mistakes, while at the same time he increases his reading comprehension.
Reading groups can be an effective tool if properly organized. Students in poorly planned groups quickly become disinterested. Children who cannot read competently should be grouped in small numbers. The small reading group affords the teacher more time to work with individuals. A total reading program offers ways of bringing the class together as one unit. Reading clubs, library clubs, a week for reading special books, and storytelling all keep the reading program alive, exciting, exhilarating, stimulating, meaningful, and full of enthusiasm!
Reading instruction seems to be more enjoyable in the morning, although many students prefer to read in the afternoon. It is recommended that primary students read in the morning, whereas intermediate youngsters read either in the morning or afternoon. Each teacher must decide when to have a formal reading. Scheduling two reading periods - one for the children who want to read in the morning and one for others who prefer to read in the afternoon-often solves the dilemma.
Some parents are interested in reading and would welcome the opportunity to come to the classroom to assist in reading programs. Listening to children read aloud is only one of a number of ways parents can help. Many retired persons enjoy listening, reading, and telling stories to children and are available to help.
When the teacher thinks his reading program is successful, he may want to set up a reading center to challenge readers of all levels. A computer, slides, films, tapes, and other materials should be included in the reading center. Books for extension reading are excellent, as are corrective readers. Paperback books pack interest for the reader. Vocabulary cards, phonetic flash -cards and phonetic charts, sets of
supplementary readers, along with other audio- visual materials help establish an effective reading center, as do word cards, books for general reading, picture cards, reading texts, and manuals for basic textbooks.
Children with special reading problems present educational challenges. Eye charts, pacers, and controlled readers are excellent tools for helping these children overcome their reading problems. A Tachistoscope and Opthalemograph prove most effective with assisting to alleviate remedial problems.
Many of today’s children are victims of stressful environments. Some from single-parent homes are tasked with responsibilities beyond their years; some suffer at the hands of abusive parents. Such emotional problems severely hamper a child’s reading ability. Poor health, physical drawbacks, and other circumstances also play a vital role in determining a child’s ability to comprehend the printed word. Such problems must be discovered and addressed before growth and enjoyment in reading becomes manifested. Finding a solution is a difficult task requiring hard work, and too often, this never-ending battle is neglected.
A Thought in Words
If a man empties his purse into his head, no one can take it from him. Franklin
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 2
Develop a Successful Elementary Classroom Guidance Program
Student security, emotional stability, personal satisfaction, and realization of individual potential result when dedicated teachers prepare a successful classroom guidance program for their students. Their concern for a successful adjustment to the classroom and school can be taken a step further by helping the children adjust to the community. Teachers who understand the significance of such guidance present a program that is well prepared and organized.
Each child is unique with basic desires and needs that must be satisfied and personal goals that must be achieved. If his needs are to be met, teachers must remember to include all students when planning activities and not to choose favorites. The class must be given ultimate attention when guiding children, which requires staying ahead of problems. Examining case studies will provide insight for solving future class and individual student problems.
Forming communities composed entirely of children is one approach to implementing a guidance program in the classroom. The teacher and children select various topics for discussion, and the students talk about them openly. Be objective in analyzing the discussions that grow and conduct appraisals in a respectable manner. Do not barge into these discussions; they are the children’s discussions. Be observant and offer advice only if the children desire help.
Identifying classroom leaders is important. Simple sociograms can help the teacher spot children with leadership qualities. As with all things, leadership can be positive or negative. If negative qualities are found early enough, disorders can be corrected. If positive qualities are found, striving for academic excellence becomes a total functional goal.
The guidance program must include personality development. Positive personality development is reinforced for the child through experiencing academic success. Mental health plays a vital role in the personality development of a child.
Opportunities must be provided during the day for this important development.
Authorities agree that individual growth of the total child is developed in three major areas:
1. Physical growth - having the finest physical health possible,
2. Emotional stability - having respect as an individual and feeling secure in
maintaining this respect, and
3. Academic achievement - knowing the potential he is seeking is real.
Remember these areas and strive to learn more about them, thus becoming a better equipped educator. Continue to read and learn about child growth and development.
It is important for teachers to remember the names of the children in their class, as well as the names of others who are not in their class. Imagine the embarrassment if a teacher were to meet a child and his parents in public and not be able to remember that child’s name, especially when the child remembers the teacher’s name. In many cases, a child’s name is his most important possession. Please remember this.
In the classroom, teacher student conferences are an integral part of the guidance program. Assign a specific classroom time that indicates to the child his teacher is available to talk with him. Active listening solves many problems before they happen.
If accumulative records are to be of any use, they must contain:
1. The child’s extracurricular activities,
2. Results of various standardized tests,
3. Positive comments (If negative comments appear, the teacher and principal
must decide if they should be taken out of the child’s record.),
4. Information concerning health,
5. Grade reports and other records, and
6. Other personal data.
When standardized tests are administered, the teacher must examine the results
and clearly understand how to interpret these scores. Developing positive lessons by
relating these results to instructional methods will help children overcome their learning difficulties. Standardized tests must be used in a positive manner and not have negative connotations.
Human relations in the community are improved when children’s parents understand the guidance program functioning within the classroom. Every effort must be made to help parents understand its significance.
Recommendations for guidance programs must come from reliable sources. Teacher discussions and discussions with interested members of the community often provide helpful suggestions and ideas concerning classroom guidance programs. School counselors, school psychologists, and other specialists are excellent sources of information.
A Thought in Words
Educate men without religion, and you make them but clever devils. Wellington
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 3
Handle Discipline in the Elementary Classroom
Maintaining classroom discipline is essential to a healthy school environment. Behavioral problems must be dealt with quickly, fairly, and constructively. Hold children accountable for their actions. Behavioral problems will be greatly reduced if responsibility for personal behavior is placed upon the children’s shoulders. Positive measures circumvent problems by conveying to the child that his teacher has faith in him as a person.
Begin now to move from supervising and policing children to allowing them to accept responsibility for their behavior and any actions resulting from their misbehavior. Start by having less direct teacher supervision in such places as the cafeteria during lunch, in the halls, or in the classroom during discussions. When it becomes evident that students are accepting responsibility for their actions or their behavior, you need to praise and congratulate them.
When one student fails to accept responsibility, avoid criticizing the entire group. Deal with the individual separately, away from the group setting. When disciplining one or a few students because of misconduct, remember that the other class members are doing great and continue to praise them heartily. Children can never receive too much praise!
Conduct the affairs of the classroom so that children feel lucky and privileged to come to school each day. Be enthusiastic when teaching. Organize each day’s learning activities so they will be completed by the children in an interesting manner. Provide opportunities for children and teacher to cooperate in the selection of various learning adventures that are to take place in the classroom. Cooperating with the children will be a motivating force that will energize the entire class. If children are motivated by challenging schoolwork, they will not fake illness in order to stay home. Instead, they will realize such a stunt hurts only them.
For those students who are continually absent from school, the teacher may be compelled to put on a counselor’s hat. Inform the child that he places himself in jeopardy by not attending school regularly. Though some absences are unavoidable, too often they are the result of poor emotional outlook toward school. A child must believe that he belongs. A sense of belonging to a group of children and to a teacher gives the child the security he needs. Take the necessary steps to develop group, as well as individual pride. Building group and individual student pride is important in strengthening positive learning environments in elementary classrooms.
Definite disciplinary policies must be established in classrooms and should spring from the teacher and children jointly. Allow the children to voice their thoughts about policy enforcement and consider these opinions when formulating policies. Disciplinary policies must meet the teacher’s professional needs and obligations, as well as the children’s personal needs.
Children must clearly understand that punishment is not administered for spite, but rather for specific reasons. Explain these reasons to the child before punishment is administered, making certain he understands that he is liked, but his behavior is not. Determine the severity of the punishment by the degree of misbehavior, and never discipline a child when angry. This protects the child as well as the teacher. It is wise to contact the principal when faced with the temptation of punishing a child in an unusual manner.
Many disciplinary problems can be addressed in weekly class discussions on character development. Social skills are presently neglected in the classroom. Each week, various incidents must be discussed which testify to the important roles that character development and social skills play in adjustment phases. Along with the presentation of academic subjects, general personal conduct must be discussed with children.
The newspaper is an excellent tool for deterring disciplinary problems. Have the class read articles about the good things people do, then have them read about the horrible things people do. Point out the reward for good behavior and the consequences of bad behavior. Soon, students will realize for themselves that people, more times than not, cause their own problems.
Children who are experiencing severe problems in school must be reassured of their teacher’s support. Read the accumulative records of a child to learn as much as possible about the child’s home setting. Being interested in the welfare of the child is the first step in wanting to help a child who is having difficulty in school. Some teachers visit the homes of people who are sick. Others show their interest by attending an activity the child is participating in, whether it be in school or in the community. Conference with these children and contact other teachers so problem situations can be corrected immediately. Problems can mushroom out of control if not handled expeditiously. It is easier to prevent a problem than to correct one. Most behavioral problems can be prevented by striving to resolve them quickly, and many problems would never have become realities had the appropriate steps been taken to prevent them.
The principle must be informed if the problems continue. The principal or counselor can offer helpful suggestions in dealing with problems before they become unmanageable. In such cases, soliciting parental cooperation may be necessary. Getting the parents involved usually assures that the child will be encouraged to improve his behavior at school as well as at home. Getting children to accept responsibility in the elementary school is a continual uphill battle for every teacher. When children have problems, they must be encouraged to establish goals they can achieve for their own individual safety, development, and improvement.
If corporal punishment is to be administered, it must be done as a last resort. Teachers will deal better with the student problems if they realize that corporal punishment is useless, a waste of time, and solves few problems. Corporal punishment must never be administered on or about the child’s head or face. When corporal punishment is administered, it is the teacher’s prime responsibility to ensure that a certified school system employee is present to witness the punishment. Children must not be spanked unless written consent is given by the child’s parents.
Do not threaten children. Firmness is a must with children at first, but later, the teacher may ease the rules. Some teachers create their own problems if they begin in a relaxed manner and then expect to bear down on the children when trouble develops.
Because actions speak loudly to children, teachers must be good examples in and out of the classroom. They must display characteristics of honesty, integrity, courtesy, fairness, ethics, and courage. The mature teacher has few disciplinary problems when he himself is a shining example of honesty, courtesy, and professionalism.
A child must go through certain procedures when he is tardy, and the tardiness is excused. On the other hand, if he skips school, it is the principal’s responsibility and duty to administer the disciplinary action. If the child leaves school early or cuts out of the classroom unexpectedly, the teacher and principal must both agree on measures to be taken in order to solve the problem. The parents of the child must be informed by the teacher or principal. A note sent home to the parents, either mailed or carried by the child, is effective as long as it is signed by a parent and returned to the school. The returned, signed note should be kept in the student’s personal files in the school’s office until the matter is corrected. A personal conference with the children’s parents is usually effective in solving difficulties.
Teachers must realize that some classroom problems require special attention and they must not hesitate to request assistance if the demands of the situation warrant it. Counselors can help tremendously. The school psychologist, principal, educational specialists, and nurse are employed to help, and their services must be requested.
Discipline problems will always be present in the classroom. When problems arise, maintain poise, always considering the child first. Trust the student’s sense of fair play, and his desire to do right. In most cases, children want to do the right thing. Treat each disciplinary incident as an individual problem and make a sincere effort to understand the child’s difficulty. Many times, in the eyes of a child, his teacher is the only adult who cares.
A Thought in Words
The foundation of every state is the education of its youth. Diogenes
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 4
Discover Dropouts before They Cop Out
Children must look forward to attending school. Though seemingly improbable, this attitude can become a reality if challenging and rewarding school experiences are offered. Through personal achievement, a child becomes aware of his own self-worth and anticipates opportunities for contributing to society.
A happy, contented child rarely chooses to drop out of school and is seldom a serious problem in the classroom. Inconsistent school attendance is the first indication of a student’s frustration with school. The teacher can identify these potential dropouts by taking daily attendance, then initiating corrective tactics before dropping out of school becomes copping out.
Besides chronic absenteeism, low achievement (especially in the areas of reading or mathematics), family economic problems, lack of ability to make friends or influence them, disciplinary problems, and a generally apathetic view toward school also indicate problems. Identify those students who fall into any of these categories, then aggressively attempt to change their attitudes. Telephone absent children at their homes during the school day or after school to show support for the child and parent. The absentee must come to realize that his teacher cares about him and her when he is not in school. Each child is a unique person and therefore each absence must be treated individually. Considering each and every need of the child who is having problems is of prime importance in solving the total problem.
Emphasize the value of school attendance to the child’s parents by telephoning them or by sending them a friendly, informative letter. Encourage parents of children with chronic absentee problems to receive in-service training and become involved in the classroom as teacher assistants. As their involvement in the school’s educational program increases, the importance of having their child attend school regularly is sharply accentuated.
Another effective approach for reaching out to habitual absentees is to personally visit their homes and to encourage classmates to do likewise. Dropout characteristics in children at the elementary level often vanish completely when peers join teachers in home visitations.
Teachers can help children having attendance problems by assigning supervised attendance. Extra- curricular activities also provide opportunities for children to assume attendance-taking responsibilities. Drama, sports, creative dramatics, music, computer clubs, and assemblies are excellent extra curricular activities for assigning responsibilities to problem children. Monthly contests often simulate children to want to attend school more regularly. Give recognition to those who show signs of attendance improvement.
Assure children they will be allowed to make up schoolwork they missed due to an absence and provide opportunities for them to do so. Arrangements must be fair, consistent, and reasonable, emphasizing clearly to the child the importance of attending school regularly. In certain instances, the teacher must exercise professional judgment in making exceptions based on particular circumstances.
Curriculum offerings must promote academic achievement. Unfortunately, present educational systems fail to meet the needs of many children many are held back each school year. These children require special attention to dispel their feelings of failure. The responsibility of providing these children with interesting, challenging, stimulating, and newer materials becomes crystal clear. Constant evaluation of the depth and breadth of the curriculum helps to maintain a quality education program. Special provisions must be made for both the above average student and the slow learner. As the student enjoys the benefits of achievement in a strong curriculum, his personal growth will be evident.
Oftentimes, appealing to a student’s sense of school pride will reverse his decision to drop out of school. Having children actively participate in keeping the classroom, school buildings, and the school grounds neat, clean, and attractive provides school spirit that spreads throughout the entire student body, and carries over into junior and senior high school.
Another way of reaching those students having difficulties in school is to have
children in the class tutor them. Peer tutors can help by discussing school attendance with problem students or by assisting them with schoolwork or homework. Leaders from the community can often motivate students to become more interested in school and in their community.
Individualizing instruction falls on many shoulders, but it falls heaviest on the shoulders of those who teach daily in the classroom. Avoid criticizing a child who is having difficulties adjusting to or fitting into an individualized program. Remember that many children are not mature enough to be placed in such academic programs.
Despite a teacher’s noblest efforts to help problem children, there will still be those who require additional attention. The child having problems in various subject areas must have the opportunity to experience success in the classroom. Set aside a block of time where this child can study one particular subject area. Counsel with him and offer guidance in handling personal difficulties and identifying goals. It is sometimes beneficial to have parents involved in the goal discussion and planning sessions. Parents want to participate in establishing long-range goals, concerns, and objectives for their child. In these sessions, encourage the parents and child to work together to develop habits that will guarantee success. The teacher, as the professional, will be expected to provide effective leadership and to monitor the situation closely. When the child is successful, praise him.
Summer remedial programs provide excellent opportunities for primary grade students who are experiencing problems. If not dealt with properly and systematically, these problems may cause children to want to drop out and cop out in later years.
Enthusiasm is a golden key to teaching, and teachers must strive to maintain a high level of honest enthusiasm throughout each teaching day. Be five-times more enthusiastic than normal and watch how potential dropouts respond. Many times their response is to dispel all thought of copping out of school.
A Thought in Words
He is to be educated not because he is to make shoes, nails, and pins, but because he is a man. Channing
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 5
Handle Transportation Problems
The yellow school bus is as integral a part of education as are the classrooms and teachers. Bus transportation ensures that classrooms are brimming with children. As with every other facet of education, reducing the logistic problems of transporting these children to and from school requires gallant effort from the classroom teacher.
In addition to greeting students each morning with a warm, friendly smile, teachers must supervise the unloading of the school bus. Some schools have a rotating list whereby teachers take turns supervising the children’s arrival. In the classroom, a time schedule listing each bus can be posted to encourage children to accept the responsibility of knowing where to meet the bus and when they will be dropped off after school. During the first two or three weeks of the school year, give each child a numbered card that corresponds to his bus number to ensure he boards the correct bus.
Discuss issues of general bus safety with the class. Explain to the children why the bus picks them up, where it does, and why it follows a certain route each day. Stress to the students the importance of being safe while waiting for the bus. Remind them that when waiting for the bus, they must stay off the highway until the bus pulls to a complete stop. This point can never be overemphasized! Tell children they are not to stand while the bus is in motion. When approaching the school grounds or their drop-off point, they must wait until the bus driver tells them that it is safe to stand up.
Misconduct on the bus is a problem that must be handled with positive corrective measures. Discuss with the children that there is to be no shoving, pushing, playing in the aisles, standing, throwing, or yelling on the bus. Explain to them that their lives are endangered when the bus driver is forced to handle disciplinary problems while the bus is moving. Insist that the bus driver explain bus rules to the children at the beginning of the school year. An open, sincere, and close relationship between child, teacher, and bus driver will prevent misbehavior problems.
When notified that a child has caused problems on the bus, obtain first-hand facts by talking to the bus monitor (if there is one) and bus driver. Inform the principle of the situation and ask for his advice. Sometimes parents must be contacted. Stress to parents that their child’s safety is of prime importance to school personnel and, in order to ensure their safe transportation to and from school, safety rules must be practiced and rigidly enforced. If bus misbehavior continues, the teacher, counselor, or principal, must advise parents of the policy of suspension, explaining the procedure clearly. Effective human relations are strengthened when basic procedures are clearly spelled out.
Children soon realize for themselves that good conduct saves lives. Tell them that in case of an emergency, the bus driver will choose only the people who have been good citizens to help. In an extreme emergency, a good citizen might be asked to go for help if the bus breaks down. Awards for superior bus conduct stimulate children to act better.
Inform the children that they are expected to keep their bus clean. Sometimes this means reminding the pupil next to them to keep it clean also.
Standard regulations govern bus transportation. Stay abreast of pertinent information by asking the principal or by writing to the state department of education for a booklet of rules, regulations, and laws.
A Thought in Words
Repetition is the mother of education. Jean Paul Richter
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 6
How to Make Beginning Teachers and New Staff Feel Welcome
Feeling anxious about the first day of school is natural for first year teachers. Experienced teachers can ease this tension by arriving at school before the new staff members and welcoming them honestly and sincerely, perhaps offering to lead them on an informal tour of the school. Acquaint them with the community that is to become their new home by highlighting its recreational attractions and suggesting places for shopping. Point out the best areas for buying or leasing a house or renting an apartment. These expressions of interest build camaraderie and boost school morale.
Often principals will assign experienced staff members to act as a “mentor”, “big sister”, or “buddy” to new staff members. When the principal asks volunteers to help orient new teachers, conscious teachers volunteer their services. Such services promote positive human relationships between present and new staff. Whether selected or not, the important thing is to be available.
If chosen to be a “mentor” to a new staff member, readily offer assistance, information, and ideas. The newcomer usually has a multitude of questions concerning his new position, salary schedules, absence procedures, paying substitutes, contracts, insurance policies, health requirements, medical benefits, and other regulations set forth by the school system, state, and national associations. Having these questions answered expediently helps in the adjustment to a new work environment.
Planning the first day is an important task for the beginning teacher who often feels insecure at the start of the school year. Guidance from an experienced professional educator is valuable. Ensure that the beginning teacher is at ease when talking about classroom teaching. Discuss organizational components informally, pointing out what will be expected. Help with lesson planning by offering assistance rather than waiting to be asked. Impress upon the beginning teacher that if the children are performing meaningful and worthwhile learning tasks, they seldom become discipline problems. If at all possible, arrange for the new teacher to observe an experienced teacher in a classroom teaching situation. Such thoughtful gestures are appreciated, though this is not always verbalized.
Explain that in the event of unusual requests by children, parents of children, or parents requiring a decision, the principal is to be contacted before the decision is rendered. It is important that the new staff member keep the principal informed about special requests.
Some school systems and communities do not approve of teachers smoking or drinking in public, or wearing flashy clothes. Drop in for an informal visit with the new teacher during the day or at the close of the school day and mention these issues. Regardless how foolish they seem, it is best to advise newcomers before mistakes are made.
Do not burden the new staff member with school problems. Refrain from discussing petty gripes or such things as the pros and cons of the teaching profession. The beginning teacher or new staff member does not need an experienced professional pointing out such things, as they will discover them soon enough on their own.
A Thought in Words
Education does not mean teaching people to know what they do not know, it means teaching them to behave as they do not behave. Ruskin
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 7
Prepare for the Opening and Closing of School
As surely as night follows day, the opening of a school year will be followed by its closing. Because the opening and closing affect parents and children directly, they must be planned carefully. It is the teacher’s responsibility to be well prepared for any unexpected situation that might present itself.
The beginning of a school year is the perfect time to check that teaching certificates are properly registered with the school system and state department of education and that health records are still valid from the previous school year. Become familiar with insurance policy and health requirements and update medical data at this time. First year teachers, remember that it is good to have health exams submitted to district offices before or during the first week of school.
During each school year, teachers face unexpected illnesses that necessitate their being absent. Know the proper procedures for reporting such absences so the school system can provide a substitute. Prepare detailed lesson plans for the substitute. Personal leave should also be addressed at the beginning of the school year. Be familiar with the proper steps for requesting personal leave in the event it is required.
Spend a few minutes at the beginning of the school year to mark calendars for holidays, report card days, conferences, paycheck issuance, and other special events scheduled during the year. Find out how often fire drills are to occur and know exactly where children are to be directed.
Opening day will usher in a host of energetic children eagerly anticipating new experiences. Having the school plant free of potential hazard is absolutely imperative. The playground areas and all playground equipment must be thoroughly inspected and be safe for children.
The classroom also must be readied for the first day of school to ensure productivity. The inventory list of instructional materials must be checked. Are books and other reading material in the classroom? Are supplies of crayons, pencils, scissors, paper, and other items ample for the size of the class? Are computers, tape recorders, and screens for showing films and other equipment in proper working order?
Posting the names of children assigned to a particular classroom on the door reduces opening-day confusion. Prepare the class roll and accumulative student records and have them on hand. Overcrowding in the classroom must be dealt with immediately. Inform the principal so necessary administrative steps can be taken to alleviate the problem. At the end of the first day, give the secretary or principal the exact enrollment count so they ensure that all children are with their assigned teacher.
Exceptionally well-organized teachers send greeting cards home to parents with short, handwritten message stating what a pleasure it is to have their child as a student. After school has begun, an announcement can be sent home informing parents of school times, lunch prices, and information such as office hours in the event they would like to schedule a conference. Giving office hours promotes positive public relations between parents and teachers while preserving professional organization at school.
Elementary teachers must be thoroughly familiar with special activities in the school. Know the scheduled times for library and educational specialist visits, physical education, and instrumental music lessons. Assembly programs, club meetings, and other special classes such as art, speech, computer lab, and creative dramatics are all an important part of the functioning elementary school.
Being on good terms with the school custodian helps the classroom operate smoothly. Teachers can make the custodian’s job easier by having the class straighten their desks, put up their chairs, remove trash from the floor, and empty trash cans during the latter part of the school day. Taking time to interact with the custodian each day by inquiring about the activities he enjoys or asking about his family will strengthen the relationship between the teacher and custodian.
As the school year draws to a close, evaluate the year’s total educational program. If changes in scheduling and curriculum must be made, discuss them with the principal. Explain any immediate concerns for the following year, remembering to keep the main focus on the needs, interest, abilities, and desires of the children and how these changes affect their lives.
On the last day of school, adhere to scheduled activities. Have the children work on worthwhile learning adventures. Allow for flexibility, but function in an orderly fashion. If not properly organized, the day could get out of hand.
Read all closing school bulletins completely and thoroughly. Be certain that all student accumulative records, attendance records, promotion and retention lists, and financial lists are completed and submit them to the school office before leaving for the summer.
If at all possible, secure the names of next year’s students, as well as the addresses of the current students. This makes it easy to contact new students and to remain in touch with former students during the summer vacation. Sometimes, sending a card or letter to new students will reduce first- day- of- school – jitters. Also, some teachers occasionally send review work to former students to refresh their memories during the summer vacation. Parents appreciate this gesture.
As the school year closes, strip the classroom of all items and leave it neat and orderly. Prepare for the principal a list of needed repairs on visual aid equipment such as computers, copying machines, or overhead projectors. Remember that certain items must be checked into the office before signing out for the summer. This list includes the following:
1. Teacher manuals, handbooks, and policies,
2. A list of those children retained for the next year,
3. A list of those children promoted to the next grade,
4. Keys and Locks. (Remember to label properly.),
5. Room inventory data,
6. Class roll books, receipt books, and teacher planning books,
7. List of the various repairs in the classroom and elsewhere that must be
attended to before next school year begins,
8. Accumulative records,
9. Any other special reports, and
10. Your summer address.
Contribute towards expenses for gifts that are bought for teachers who are leaving the school system or retiring. If the opportunity presents itself during the final meeting, express thanks and give recognition to staff members for their cooperation during the school year. Be honest, sincere, and polite in closing remarks wish them all a pleasant summer vacation. Now is also a good time to express honest and sincere appreciation to the principal for his leadership as an administrator. Spend these final minutes in a friendly conversation and end by saying thank you to the principal for a job well done.
This chapter has concerned itself with the opening and closing days of the school year. Though these suggestions are aimed primarily at the inexperienced teacher, all can profit from having reviewed them. Speaking straight to the point, a thorough job of closing school will make for a smooth opening in the fall. Perhaps someday a computer will be tasked with the chore of opening and closing school and the teacher will simply walk to the classroom and begin teaching. Until such a time, however, practicing these suggestions will make for an easier transition.
A Thought in Words
Education makes a people easy to lead, but difficult to drive; easy to govern, but impossible to enslave. Lord Brougham
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 8
Develop a Successful Intramural Program
All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. It also makes Jill a dull girl. For this reason, elementary children must be offered the opportunity to participate in physical activities apart from regularly scheduled physical education classes. Intramural sports provide the perfect opportunity. A well-organized intramural program reinforces the skills that have been taught during physical education, builds new skills, and strengthens desirable attitudes such as cooperation among children.
Every school, regardless of size, must participate actively in intramural competition. Teachers must become familiar with what a successful program entails. Often, simply pointing out the need for such a program to the principal, who then informs the central administration, is enough to get the program started. The intramural program is a vital link in the school’s educational program, for it, too, is an educative process. Through intramural sports, children learn valuable lessons that could never be taught in the classrooms. Team effort, good sportsmanship, and fight-to-the-finish attitudes prepare today’s little people for tomorrow’s ventures. From the dust of ball fields rise future businessmen and businesswomen, civic leaders, and professionals.
An intramural program must be tailored to available school equipment and facilities. Occasionally, this severely limits what a school can offer. Keep in mind however, that the program’s success is not measured by the shine of the new equipment but rather by the shine in the children’s eyes.
Competition between intramural teams can be organized through homeroom teams, teams for each grade level, physical education classes, or through groups based on weight, height, or chronological age. The intramural teams must be as evenly balanced as possible. Varsity players must not participate in the same sport on an intramural level. Instead, use them as helpers. Children who do not posses the ability to participate on the varsity level must not be expected to compete at this level.
Use pyramid tournaments, single or double elimination, round robin, ladder, or any other type of tournament for competitive purposes. If these activities cannot be scheduled during the lunch period, or before or after school, then and only then should they be held during the regularly scheduled physical education period. Since many elementary children are bused to and from school each day, the intramural programs can also be scheduled during the regular school day in order to offer these children the opportunity to participate.
Not all teachers posses the athletic abilities necessary to lead and conduct an intramural program; however, all teachers must get involved in some way so they can periodically evaluate the program’s value and offer positive suggestions for improvement. An interested faculty member might be asked to serve as intramural coordinator or director for the entire school. In larger schools, it may be necessary to have more than one coordinator.
Parents must give written consent before their child is allowed to participate in intramural activities. No child is to be excluded from participating because of poor academic achievement.
Some intramural activities can be scheduled throughout the school year, while others work better when scheduled in the fall, winter, or springtime. Special bulletins providing the details of the various activities can be distributed to parents. This is an excellent public relations tool, for parents will appreciate the opportunity to see their child compete, regardless of his athletic ability.
If certain children are limited in their natural athletic abilities, a solid remedial intramural program must be established immediately in order to satisfy the needs of these children. If the remedial program is not spearheaded by the principal, then elementary teachers must accept the responsibility of organizing the program.
An intramural handbook can prove to be a valuable tool for teachers organizing activities. Study the aims, objectives, and goals of various intramural programs. The result will be better program due to the fact that the coordinator is informed and understands what elements are essential for creating a quality elementary school intramural program.
A Thought in Words
Education is the apprenticeship of life. Willmott
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 9
Plan Field Trips
Field trips are an extension of the classroom’s education program. If well planned and properly supervised, they can be exciting and enriching learning experiences for the class. Creativity is unleashed when learning moves from the four-walled classroom to the classroom of the world. Field trips offer children an opportunity to learn by seeing, touching, and exploring what they read about in books. As children gaze upon historic monuments or retrace the footsteps of bygone heroes, as they observe intricate conveyor belts manipulate products in a factory, or as they stand before huge printing presses spitting news copy with lightening speed, they discover life and their appreciation of the community, state, and nation in which they live.
If a field trip is going to be successful, careful planning is essential. Children feel a part of the total experience if they are allowed to help plan the field trip. Guide the class in the planning stages by outlining the academic subject students are currently studying and pointing out exactly what they can expect to observe while on the field excursion.
Schedule field trips well in advance. Consult the principal or the central administration at least six weeks prior to short field trips and three to four months prior to extend field trips. If extended field trips are planned, the teacher and principal must hold parent conferences or a meeting to explain in detail all teacher, school, parent, and student responsibilities for the field excursion. Be familiar with the legalities involved in taking such trips, and inform parents or other sponsoring groups of various responsibilities.
Post notices informing other faculty members of the class field trip. Furnish a concise statement and outline to the principal approximately three weeks before the scheduled trip. In the event changes are necessary, plans can be modified in time to preserve the excursion.
Strengthen student participation during the trip by signing groups of children to specific study phases of the adventure so all children gain fully from the learning
experience. These assignments may be issued a week or two prior to the trip.
Teachers must realize the importance of traveling to unfamiliar places in advance of scheduled field trips. Teachers responsible for securing buses should do so a week or two in advance so that the necessary paperwork is submitted prior to transportation deadlines. Being familiar with travel distances help in determining departure time, arrival time, and time of return to the school. Also, other information may be discovered that will expose unforeseen problems and give a clearer idea of what the teacher should expect. Be sure to inform pull-out program teachers and ancillary staff about students who will not be attending their class that day. In addition, provide the cafeteria supervisor with a list of students who may need a sack lunch.
Before the day of the field trip, stress to the children the conduct and behavior that will be expected of them. Send a letter to parents explaining rules and regulations for student conduct and behavior. In this informational letter, tell parents that the children will be representing their homes, school, and community and suggest that parents discuss appropriate field trip behavior with their child. This makes the teacher’s job easier and solves potential problems. A permission form must accompany the policies and regulations letter. Have the parent sign three copies. They keep one copy for themselves and return two copies to the school. Send one copy to the principal and keep one on file in the classroom. Under no circumstance should a child be allowed to travel on the field trip without the specific, written consent of parents or guardians.
A male and female from the faculty should accompany the students on the field trip. Due to safety issues, some school districts require parents who will be attending the fieldtrip to undergo a criminal background check. Make sure parents are aware of the school's policies and procedures concerning this matter before the day of the trip. Each teacher must not be expected to be responsible for more than 35 elementary age youngsters. Under no circumstances should two teachers be responsible for more than 70 children unless, of course, a parent offers to help chaperone - in which case no more than 12 children should be assigned to the parent. Unless they have had supervisory experience with children, parents must NOT be expected by certified teachers to perform professional duties.
Discourage use of private vehicles for field trip transportation. If, however, no alternative can be found, ensure that all vehicles have proper insurance coverage and meet current safety regulations. Seek assistance from local police authorities in checking the safety of cars, drivers, and insurance coverage’s. Do not assume the principal will check everything, for most principals are not auto mechanics by trade. School system buses are generally inspected by the transportation department, but it is a good idea to check again for proper ventilation and other conditions to ensure the children’s safety. It must be the teacher’s professional judgment that safe and adequate transportation is being provided by conscientious adult drivers.
Do not allow any child to exit the transportation vehicle until told to do so. Children must thoroughly understand that only their teacher is to give permission to exit the transporting vehicle.
Emphasize to the students that they are to remain with their assigned group during the trip and are to conduct themselves properly at all times. Stress that yelling at passengers in other vehicles or holding items (including arms) out of the windows is strictly forbidden.
Plan meaningful follow up activities for the class to reinforce learning. Have the class write letters to the host of the place they visited, summarizing their learning experiences and expressing appreciation for being given such an opportunity. These can be in long-hand, but they should be accompanied by a typewritten letter from the teacher. This small courtesy ensures future invitations. As a special consideration, the class and teacher could write letters of appreciation to any person who helped furnish transportation and others who contributed to the success of the field trip.
During informal discussions involving all children in the class, evaluate the field trip to determine its success. Submit to the principal a report of this discussion, highlighting the educational merits of the field trip as seen through the children’s eyes.
The principal can then make his own personal assessment of its success.
A Thought in Words
Education commences at the mother’s knee, and every word spoken within the hearsay of little children tends towards the formation of character. Horace Ballou
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 10
Establish a Study Center in the Classroom
The elementary teacher is constantly being bombarded with innovative ideas and suggestions emphasizing the need for independent classroom study centers for children. Traditional independent study centers afforded students the opportunity to complete assignments and to develop better study habits; however, it did not always give them the teacher assistance they so desperately needed in English, mathematics, reading, and other subjects. For this reason, the traditional center is currently on its way out and is being replaced by student-oriented study centers that involve more individual participation.
When establishing a study center, examine different facilities in order to determine how to provide an efficient, workable study center. Detailed planning is vital if the study center is to be successfully instituted. For maximum appeal to children, equip the study center with charts, maps, scales, magazines, reference book materials, tape recorders, listening posts, and globes. Computers provide invaluable teaching assistance and educational software, readily available for all levels, to make learning fun. When choosing instructional materials, remember to allow for individual differences in terms of academic performance, interests, skills, and abilities. Divide the center opportunity to individually choose specific areas that satisfy personal education needs.
As members of the class require additional information, encourage them to use the study center. The atmosphere within the study center must motivate children to help one another and to work constructively and cooperatively on projects and topics for which there is common interest. Be available to each child by rotating through the various study areas as much as possible during the day. Even the best-equipped center cannot replace the human element of teacher interaction.
Assign children requiring special information to a specific curriculum area. Children who do not accept the responsibility of being assigned to a study area must not be allowed to disturb students who are there to work. On the other hand, those students who are responsible for their sections can be granted freedom of movement to select the curriculum areas where they wish to work.
The study center can be an invaluable tool for providing challenging educational opportunities to students. Bright students are free to expand their horizons without the frustration of accommodating slower classmates. Slower students, with the aid of study center computers, receive the repetitive exposure they need to thoroughly understand subject matter. Even the teacher, for whom the pressure of being all things to all people is finally alleviated, enjoys the benefits of successful study center.
Following directions is extremely important in the classroom. The teacher should post the following list in the classroom so students know what is expected of them when they complete and submit work:
1. Read everything carefully,
2. Read again anything you do not understand,
3. Begin work carefully,
4. Complete all work,
5. Check your work again to make certain you have completed all tasks, and
6. Submit your work.
A Thought in Words
An industrious and virtuous education of children is a better inheritance for them than a great estate. Allison
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 11
Use Instructional Materials and Audio-Visual Aids in the Classroom
In the course of traditional teaching, students sometimes fail to command a thorough understanding of their subject matter, whether complex or simple. Using audio visual aids in addition to the textbook brings such subject matter into clearer focus and often improves teacher effectiveness in the classroom.
Teachers have always been exposed to a large variety of instructional materials and audio- visual aids during training, yet they often avoided using them in classrooms because they simply did not have the time to master their functional operation. Today’s selections of audio-visual aids, though highly sophisticated, have been engineered with the user in mind. These include interactive computers, overhead projectors, movie projectors, cassette recorders, and television video recorders. Decide which of these best contributes to the educational goals set for students and then plan classroom activities so it will be incorporated in the learning process.
Observing teachers who are using educational equipment can be motivating. Stay abreast of what is available in instructional materials by attending workshops on audio-visual education, radio and television production, or effective use of computers. If unfamiliar with certain instructional materials, aggressively seek in-service training to learn how to use instructional technology. Effective use of audio-visuals enhances classroom learning and unleashes creativity in teacher and students.
Strive constantly to improve teaching methods by seeking innovative aids that will motivate children towards more successful communication. The secret to effective planning is using a variety of instructional materials including print material such as books and pamphlets; non-print materials such as pictures, CD's, DVD's , records, and tapes; and the necessary audio visual equipment for viewing of and listening to these materials. Evaluate their effectiveness in the classroom and make necessary adaptations to attain maximum potential.
An overhead projector by itself or accompanied with a computer is essential
equipment for any classroom. Like the chalkboard, the overhead projector has a variety of instructional functions. One of its main advantages during presentation of subject matter is that it allows teachers to face students rather than teaching with their backs to the class as when using the chalk board.
Regardless of location, culturally disadvantaged and socially deprived children will be present in the classroom. Appropriate instructional materials for these children help to cross cultural barriers and unblock the learning potential of these students. Search continually for innovative technology that will meet the needs of these children.
Teachers who participate in school system, county, and state-wide programs for developing and writing resource lessons become acquainted with the diverse enrichment materials that are available for classroom use. Discover where and how to obtain these various materials and then use them to obtain these various materials and then use them to obtain maximum classroom effectiveness.
A Thought in Words
Education is the chief defense of nations. Burke
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 12
Use the Library More Effectively
The elementary school library contains a wealth of information that supplements and enriches classroom curriculum. But this wealth, if untapped, remains ineffectual. The responsibility of teaching students how to use the library effectively rests upon the shoulders of the elementary teacher. If students learn during their formative years that library visits can be fun and interesting, chances are they will continue using the library in later years.
For many children, reading is a drudgery. This attitude issues a challenge to teachers - a challenge that must be answered with positive action. One positive step is to obtain books from the school system’s main library and display them attractively in the classroom to pique the children’s interest. If children see colorful displays, often they will take a closer look.
Teach the students about the library’s physical arrangement of children’s books and special reference books. Ask the librarian to explain to the class the library’s system for filing books in the individual sections. Emphasize to the student’s that they are to make an honest effort to find books and other materials before asking the teacher or librarian for assistance. The basic procedures and regulations for checking books out of the library must also be reviewed. If books are examined by children at a reading table, instruct them to leave those on the table for library helpers to properly shelve later.
Give the children an opportunity to use the library for projects in language arts, social studies, science, independent reading, and other subjects. Arrange with the librarian for the class to spend at least thirty minutes per week in the library. Accompany the class to the library and occasionally remain with them. A great deal can be learned by assisting the librarian during this week. This period can be earmarked for special projects or simply as a time for pleasure reading.
Current issues of magazines with intrinsic educational value are usually available in the school library. Guide students to magazines such as National Geographic, Popular Science, Holiday, Newsweek, U.S. News and World Report, Life, Time, and others that may be on display. Carefully screen any magazines or other books that may have been contributed by members of the community.
Ask the librarian for permission to set up displays to exhibit special work. This informs teachers, principals, parents, and other children of classroom activities and instills a sense of pride in each child whose work is on display.
Elementary children face increased responsibility for independent study. An excellent library meets the needs of these children by providing individual study carrels and rooms for small group study and conferences. The library must also provide large televisions, record players, earphones for silent reading and listening, soundproof booths for computers, educational technology typewriters, tape recorders, and bioscope. Computers, movie projectors, and film projectors give added educational support to the total instructional program. Notify the librarian of children who need special attention in the library and ask they be given professional assistance.
Students ultimately benefit from cooperation between teacher and librarian. Unpleasant feelings often result because librarians are not notified that a class will be tardy. If the regularly scheduled class library time must be postponed or canceled, inform the librarian as soon as possible so other arrangements can be made to maximize the use of the library facilities.
After planning a study unit, it is a good idea to submit a copy to the librarian approximately six weeks before beginning the study. This gives the librarian time to assemble supplemental reading materials for the class in order to enhance learning opportunities for students. Consulting with the librarian before class assignments are made prevents problems caused by unavailability of materials. If informed before hand, the librarian can reserve the necessary reference material for the class.
Impress upon the class their role in the library and the library’s role in their academic lives. Overdue books are cause for concern. Teach children to be responsible for borrowed books. This will develop good human relations between the class, teacher and librarian.
The children must fully understand that the library is a place for studying as well
as for quiet reading. In order to maintain a proper environment, children must refrain from making excessive noise during visits. Developing library courtesy ensures that class visits will be welcomed and the excursion will be a happy one.
The library must not be used to discipline students. Library visits are a privilege and not punishment. Get the children actively involved in the library by allowing them to be helpers. A rotating schedule can be developed so each child has an opportunity to serve in this role.
If a full time librarian is not present at the elementary level, teachers must accept the library responsibilities on a rotating basis. These would include supervising the proper shelving of books, keeping accurate circulation records, and guiding children in the selection of books in order to help them develop diversified reading habits. Also, maintain library bulletin boards. A well-planned, colorful exhibit is appealing and can stimulate student’s interest for reading.
Visit book fairs to become apprised of new reading materials that are available. Jot down the title, author’s name, publisher, and price of interesting books and ask the school to purchase them. Plan to use these for class projects.
Finally, support the library and it’s value in the school. Be quick to express positive feelings honestly during meetings or conferences. This positive feedback may inspire fellow faculty members who were not aware of the library services to utilize the library for more class study projects.
A Thought in Words
Of all created things, the loveliest and most divine are children. William Canton
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 13
Participate in the School Faculty Meeting
Faculty meetings have long been a tradition in all phases of education. Though sometimes viewed negatively, faculty meetings can be a positive force for teachers and principals that result in many school improvements. Since teachers are the core participants, the meeting’s success depends on whether or not they participate honestly and actively.
All faculty meetings should begin promptly. Teachers must be notified by the person conducting the meeting if a delay is necessary. Lack of communication causes distress and frustration among teachers. It is important to resolve this issue before it becomes a problem.
The trend now is for teachers and the principal to cooperatively plan faculty meetings. Teachers must not expect the principal and fellow faculty members to carry the burden. All can become active participants by studying the agenda beforehand in preparation for the meeting. If the principal wants classroom teachers or department heads to conduct the meeting, offer to do so rather than waiting to be asked. Since the majority rule applies in most meetings, voicing opinions can give depth to discussions. Each participant must feel free to ask questions and offer opinions. If the atmosphere of the faculty meeting does not lend itself to open discussion, it is usually not the fault of the active participant.
Keep the specific purpose of the faculty meeting uppermost in mind. One or two people must not be allowed to do all the talking and planning; if the meeting drags, advise the principal or leader. Be cautious of allowing gossip about other teachers, children, or parents to enter the meeting.
Evaluation of the faculty meeting is easily accomplished by asking:
• Was the faculty meeting useful to all who attended?
• Did all faculty members actively participate?
• Did the discussion motivate further study and more effective teaching?
Remember, lively participation in all phases of faculty meetings encourages others to participate.
A Thought in Words
That which we are, we are all the while teaching, not voluntarily, but involuntarily. Emerson
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 14
Banish Forever the Fear of Principal Observations
Teacher evaluations, though sometimes unpleasant, ensure that education standard remain high and children receive quality education. Unfortunately, the principal as an evaluator is often perceived as “the bad guy” and teachers keep a safe distance. Creating a favorable atmosphere between principal and teacher can be hard work, but having a good, sincere, and honest professional relationship will increase confidence when the principal enters the classroom, whether it be formally or informally.
Evaluation can threaten teachers who do not understand its purpose. Extending an invitation for the principal to observe the class often eases the pre-observation tension. If the principal is not in the classroom for scheduled observation when class begins, do not be concerned. Chances are he prefers to enter inconspicuously during the lesson. When he does enter, do not call undue attention to him or her.
Points to remember about classroom observation and evaluation are not overwhelming. More times than not, teachers know what the principal is looking for during the observation. The principal usually observes whether children are sitting at their desks and if chairs fit children properly. Are children allowed to take responsibility for their learning? Is the classroom properly ventilated and is it kept at a reasonable temperature? Is the classroom neat and orderly? Will instructional techniques achieve meaningful goals and do they make allowances for individual differences? Most importantly, the principal will be observing whether the teacher has established reasonable goals for the children.
An effective elementary teacher contributes to the improvement of student instruction by developing a wholesome teaching- learning situation in the classroom. Constant review of educational literature and professional journals keep teachers abreast of the latest trends in education. When new ideas are discovered, discuss them with colleagues to eliminate those that are not feasible. Discuss workable ideas with the principal. Teachers soon discover that most principals enjoy being approached for their advice and are eager to share their opinions on newer ideas in education. Positive interaction with the principal can enhance teacher effectiveness. Being available to talk to the principal at regularly scheduled times during the week allow the principal to build on professional assets while helping to eliminate weaknesses. First year teachers may expect the principal to talk with them in practical terms about lessons or classroom techniques. This does not preclude the discussion of other topics.
When the classroom observation has been completed, the principal usually schedules a conference with the teacher. This must be completed as soon as possible following the observation. If too much time passes before scheduling the conference, teachers tend to reflect upon their performance negatively and doubt their abilities. When fellow faculty are having problems with evaluations, be concerned and reach out to them. Take time from busy schedules to do something nice for a teacher who is discouraged. A simple pat on the back, a friendly handshake with words of encouragement, offering to share a new teaching aid, taking a recess duty, offering a ride to or from school, a telephone call that evening, or sometimes flowers, a gift, or a card help teachers feel better after a negative observation.
A Thought in Words
‘Tis education forms the common mind: Just as the twig is bent, the tree’s inclined.’ Pope
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 15
How to Implement Team Teaching
Teaching ability varies from teacher to teacher. Some teachers have superior lecturing skills, but they feel helpless when dealing one on one; others work effectively with individuals but become intimidated in group situations. Because of the wide differences in professional teaching talent, team teaching is one way teachers utilize their finest teaching capabilities.
Switching from traditional methods of teaching to team teaching must be planned slowly, carefully, and cautiously. In the developmental stages, the major concern is motivating children toward independent study. Two teachers can successfully instruct large groups ranging from 60 to 125 students; however, independent study will be more flexible in smaller groups of 12 to 18 children. Small group instruction lends itself to the exchange of ideas.
A planning meeting is essential when developing team instruction. If feasible, plan to meet either in the morning before school begins or in the afternoon after school ends: otherwise, schedule this planning session during teachers’ conference times. All teachers involved must be present for the planning session and must communicate their talents and strengths openly and sincerely in order to be properly integrated into the team. A decision must be made to either appoint a team leader or to allow leadership to grow from the professionals within the team. Team members with experience can use their training to help those who are new to team teaching. Each teacher can contribute by developing outlines for subject areas and by writing revisions, along with volunteering innovative ideas. Remain sensitive to all teachers’ opinions and viewpoints. Strive to ensure that teams are evenly balanced. Observing schools with effective team teaching programs in operation can provide ideas and proven methods for achieving success.
An initial approach to team-teaching is to place an experienced teacher with a less experienced teacher. They could be assigned 60 children in a 90-minute class period. Another approach would be to combine teachers and students for one particular subject, for example mathematics, allowing teachers with less experience to teach the area they are best qualified in and allowing the more experienced teachers to teach other math areas. Sometimes placing three teachers with 125 children yields effective results. This entire class would be involved in small group, large group, and individualized instruction in a rotating fashion. Another teaming technique would be to have three teachers working with children, each instructing in the area he or she is best qualified to perform successfully. Regardless of the approach used, team objectives must be evaluated continuously in order to maintain education of high quality.
Individualized instruction places additional responsibility for learning directly onto the shoulders of the student; therefore, assignments must be meaningful and challenging. Activities must be well-planned with a balance between scheduled learning activities and large and small group instruction. Students must be trained to take notes quickly and effectively. Intermediate grade students must learn how to listen intelligently and how to use classroom study time efficiently. Alert teachers working with children must recognize individual differences in children, or they are doomed to failure. Well-planned, differentiated, and balanced activities provide for individual differences in children, as well as satisfy the personal needs and aspirations of the teachers on the team.
Teacher planning time must be spent preparing, evaluating, gathering, and perfecting various visual and instructional aids that will be suitable for each lecture and learning activity. Keep in mind that guest speakers may be obtained from the present staff, local community, and parents who have special abilities.
Team teaching is a proven alternative that stimulates, energizes, and promotes teacher to teacher communication. Oftentimes, teacher burnout is eliminated because teachers who are a part of a successful team program feel excited about their work. Team teaching, even if well executed, may not be the answer to the continuous riddle of how to improve classroom instruction for children at the elementary school level. However, team teaching does create an environment that encourages improvement. Teacher confidence is heightened. Teachers sense personal and professional achieve-
ment, and they are ultimately satisfied with their jobs.
A Thought in Words
The School Master is abroad, and I trust him, armed with his primer, against the solider in full military array. Brougham
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 16
Develop Strong Public Relations Using the Elementary Classroom
Public relation’s is an area of schooling in which teachers are not always well versed. This chapter offers practical suggestions for using the classroom to develop a strong public relations program.
Children are the best public relation agents a teacher could possibly hope to employ. Promoting a happy atmosphere in the classroom, along with creating an environment that is conducive to learning will result in favorable comments from the children when they speak of their classroom and their teacher.
The teacher is the first to know if a child is doing well in school. Writing a postcard or letter to parents informing them of their child’s accomplishments promotes positive human relations. Praise the child, mentioning him by name rather than saying your child, your son, or your daughter. The letters do not have to be lengthy, but they must be personal, distinctive, sincere, truthful, and honest. Avoid sending negative letters. If something negative must be said, telephone parents and schedule a conference. Only strong, positive letters must be sent to parents. Appreciative letters sent to parents make children happier in school.
Sometimes parents believe their child has or has not accomplished certain goals during the year. Questionnaires designed to provide teachers with feedback can be drafted and sent home to be completed by parents. Invite parents to the classroom to observe classes for a day. Be sure to allow time before they leave to talk with them and reflect upon what they observed. This will give parents a positive feeling about their child’s school and teacher.
Keep the following two thoughts in mind when writing letters to parents:
1. Is this letter good for the child and parents and is it good for the school?
2. Is the letter a positive reflection on the classroom and school?
If these two questions can be answered “Yes,” a teacher’s professional judgment in sending the letter is probably on target. Remember to secure permission from the
school principal before sending letters to parents.
Many times parents come directly to the classroom to pick up their children for dental, doctor, or other appointments. In such instances, insist that the parents report first to the school office to fill out a record indicating they have picked up their child and are assuming the responsibility of taking them home. Misunderstandings result from such enforcements can be avoided if parents understand the rules under which the school operates. A friendly letter sent to parents explaining the standard operating procedures of the elementary school fosters good relations between parents and teacher. Preparing special bulletins detailing important school events and sending these to parents also prevents misunderstandings between parents and the school.
Study the community and its various organizations to gain a better understanding of the cultural background of students. Learn as much as possible about which youth groups are most active in the community, where recreational activities are located, which church is most predominant in the area, and which business establishments are doing poorly. Visit industrial complexes, and talk with business people. Seize the opportunity to have individuals in the community talk to students. Elicit suggestions from community leaders on what they think should be emphasized in the classroom. This information will afford a better understanding of the character of the community. Having good relationships between the teacher, business, and industrial organizations is important, especially when field excursions are being planned.
When meeting with members of the community, whether they be happy or dissatisfied with the school, talk with them and not at them. Become an active and sincere listener. As a representative of the school system, as well as the teaching profession, the teacher must understand the value of communicating with people in the community.
Be aware of community resources. If properly used, these resources will strengthen the school’s relationship with the community. Further information can be obtained form the Chamber of Commerce, public health service, law enforcement officers, and other civic organizations. All available resources must be tapped.
Suggest to the principal that school facilities be offered for community use. For
example, the gym and athletic fields could be used for adult education programs, the library could be made available for adults during the week. Teachers could offer their services for supervision purposes or perhaps stop by the library to interact with parents. If community residents are allowed to use the school facilities, they will realize the value of the school and will want to protect their investment.
Suggestions for developing and maintaining human and public relations have been integrated throughout this book. It is highly recommended that teachers take the time to review them, underlining or circling those passages in each chapter. Use personal creativity to develop other public relations techniques and begin now to practice these techniques in order to nourish relationships among children, parents, teachers, administrators, and community members.
A Thought in Words
Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers. Alfred Lord Tennyson “Locksley Hall”
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 17
Use the Elementary Assembly to Benefit Students
Gathering the entire elementary school student body into one place for an assembly is exciting for students and is often a welcome break from classroom activities. General assemblies can be informative sessions, special events recognizing outstanding students, or special programs for entertaining the student body.
Make every effort to involve students in the assembly production. Their participation can be in the construction of stage props and other assembly preparations, as well as actually performing. An assembly is evaluated as a success if many children are allowed to participate in it. Occasionally, assemblies are solely adult or guest oriented. Children must behave properly and be attentive during these assemblies.
If children from the classroom are to participate in the assembly activities, help them prepare for it by allowing them to rehearse their role at least three or four times before the actual performance. Make suggestions during these rehearsals. Too often, assemblies are ineffective because participants can not be heard by the audience. If a microphone is to be used, show children how to use it correctly. Remind participants about stage manners - they are to be quiet and remain out of sight while backstage.
If the assembly is to be an orderly event, students must be informed of procedures and must cooperate fully. Discuss fire drill procedures with the class in the event one occurs during the assembly. Children must know where to go during expected emergencies. Organize the class so that the children leave the classroom in time to be seated in the assembly area at least five minutes before the program begins. Have all children attend the assembly, except those who have severe colds or who are coughing, and may disturb the assembly and distract the audience. Send these students to the nurse’s office, the school office, a designated area, or the library where adult supervision is available. Do not hold students back from the assembly because of disciplinary problems.
Classes are occasionally assigned a specific section for seating in order to remain together at the assembly. Know in advance where those seats are so the children will not be confused as they arrive. Decide whether to have the children remain standing until all class members have located their seats or to have them be seated when they arrive. Eliminate problems by not assigning particular seats to individual children.
The assembly usually begins with the entire student body reciting the Pledge of Allegiance and singing the national anthem. Remind the students to stand straight and tall, and to sing to the best of their abilities since they are not only representing themselves, but their class and teacher when they attend school assemblies. Performing the flag salute each day in the classroom and singing an appropriate song afterwards prepares the class for school assembly activities.
A Thought in Words
Education is the ability to meet life’s situations. Dr. John G. Hibben, Former President, Princeton University
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 18
Make PTA/PTO/PTSO Meaningful for both Parent and Teacher
The purpose of the PTA (Parent-Teacher Association), PTO (Parent-Teacher Organization), or PTSO (Parent-Teacher-Student Organization) is to provide an opportunity for teachers and parents to work cooperatively for the growth and development of the children. Regular attendance at these meetings opens communication lines between the home and school, resulting in improved parent-teacher relations. If parents understand the parameters under which schools operate, they are more apt to cooperate with school personnel. Be prepared to answer questions pertaining to school policies or school system regulations. The PTA/PTO/PTSO meeting is an ideal time to introduce school programs and solicit input from parents before setting program goals. Creative ideas proffered at these meetings often result in effective and productive attainment of these goals.
Parents attend PTA/PTO/PTSO meetings to talk to their child’s teacher as well as to discuss pressing school issues. Circulate during the refreshment break and informally talk to as many parents as possible. Discuss various school activities and comment on their child’s participation in these activities. Parents are eager to know what their child does at school.
Strive to make all parents who come to the meeting feel welcome, especially those attending for the first time. Introductions are not only a courtesy, they are essential for encouraging parents to initiate conversation with other parents as well as with teachers. Remember, if a parent does not feel welcome at school meetings, chances are slim that he will return.
During the week following the meeting, send letters of appreciation to parents who took time out of their busy schedules to attend. Parents will feel their attendance at the meeting was purposeful and will be encouraged to support future school functions.
A Thought in Words
The aim of education is not knowledge, but action. Herbert Spencer
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 19
Conference with Parents and Evaluate the Success of the Meeting
The three primary agents for a child's physical, emotional, and spiritual development are the family, school, and teacher. The relationship of these three agents affects the child's individual behavior. The child develops a balance between home and school when parents and teachers coordinate activities and learning experiences that require cooperation between the two. The parent-teacher conference is an effective way of accomplishing this.
The teacher's role in conferencing with parents requires a working knowledge of adult psychology and child development. Read books on conferencing in order to become familiar with how to plan and conduct a successful conference. Review conferencing techniques by role-playing with a colleague. During these practice sessions, be mindful of which techniques result in successful conferences and remember to use them during parent conferences. Getting together with other teachers to discuss successful conferencing procedures often helps. Include parents in these gatherings and solicit their suggestions in order to eliminate as many shortcomings as possible before conferencing time approaches.
Stress to parents the value of conferences. In a brief bulletin, explain its purpose and highlight conference procedures. Send parents a personal invitation and ask them to list particular items they would like to discuss during the conference. Three days before the scheduled conference personally telephone parents to confirm the day and time of the conference. Express pleasure and warm expectations of seeing them. This promotes a healthy relationship between parent and teacher. Write letters offering regrets to parents who could not be scheduled. Often, these parents will take the initiative to arrange a conference within two or three days.
If home conferences must be scheduled, always contact the parents to arrange an appointment before making a home visit or invite the parents to the school for an observation of the classroom. A personal invitation builds strong communication with the parents and develops stronger human relations between parents and teacher. Telephone conferences are not as effective as face-to face conferences and are generally used to contact parents for emergencies or situations that require immediate attention.
Each child should have an individual work folder containing samples of his school work. Include any additional information from other professionals (counselor, psychologist, educational specialist, or principal) who might be working with the child. Use this folder when preparing for the conference and refer to it during the conference. Prior to the conference, organize a checklist of the areas to be discussed. The following might be included in this checklist:
1. Work study habits,
2. Attitude concerning school,
3. Human relations with peers,
4. Academic performance and achievement,
5. Maturational growth,
6. Specific reasons for conducting the conference, and
7. Positive suggestions for future improvement.
A neatly typewritten list of scheduled conferences should be displayed for parents. Provide chairs in a waiting area and furnish magazines, books, and pamphlets for them to read while waiting. Many parents relax before the conference if reading materials are available for them to browse.
Choose a conference room that is private and well-lit. A classroom is acceptable, provided the conference will not be disrupted. Provide a small table where teacher and parents can sit together, rather than the teacher sitting behind a desk. Develop a comfortable relationship immediately by welcoming the parents in a sincere, friendly, and courteous manner. If English is not the parents’ dominant language, invite a member of the staff to translate the discussion, and thoroughly explain who “this stranger” is, and what she or he will be doing. Start the conference by pointing out the child's strengths rather than his or her weaknesses. Displaying the child's school work for the parents' perusal can stimulate a conference. Include artwork, reports, charts, and tapes the child has made. Parent’s want to see their
child’s progress and inspecting their child's work often impresses them favorably. After discussing the child's better qualities, bring up his difficulties and always offer suggestions for improvement. During the conference, allow parents to talk freely, encouraging them to point out what they perceive to be problem areas. Listen carefully, and respect their opinions. Discuss these problems intelligently, and then offer suggestions for solving them. The solution may require adjustments on the part of the teacher as well as the parents. Focus discussion on the child rather than on methods of teaching or parent's personal lives. Dwell on the positive comments made by parents and remain unbiased, withholding personal judgment. The conference will develop naturally as basic objectives are addressed.
Diplomacy is an art and must be used at all times during the conference. Never dictate ideas or suggestions to parents. Parents have their own ideas, opinions, and prejudices about their children and these are not easily changed. Offer several possible solutions to problems and then allow parents to decide on a course of action. Avoid being overly critical of the child. Parents are the last to see their child's faults, and criticism can be detrimental to relationships.
Avoid arguing. Do not take offense if the parent, disillusioned with education in general, makes a derogatory remark about the school or school system. Allow the parent to talk against the system, respecting his or her right to feel as he or she does. Use professional judgment in defending any issues.
When parents talk about affairs that should remain private, they are really saying, “I trust you.” Never discuss or reveal these personal concerns with friends, staff members, or spouses. This personal information must remain confidential.
Avoid being overly sentimental during a conference. Have a complete understanding about the feeling of parents. Do not let their problems become personal problems. Be concerned, but no not worry about their problem.
Encourage parents to talk during the conference, but do it honestly. Do not use flattery. It is better to say nothing unless it can be said with honest appreciation. Boost their egos by mentioning the thoughtful things that they have done with their child. This honest recognition will result in a showing of parental pride.
During the conference, speak in common, everyday language that parents will understand. When the teacher speaks in teacher terminology, parents resent it, thinking the teacher is trying to show off or talk down to them. When a teacher is guilty of this, he or she is insulting parents by underestimating their intelligence.
Before closing the conference, summarize significant points that were discussed. Never end on a negative note. Make every possible effort to conclude in a positive, constructive, and pleasant manner. Offer encouragement to parents, committing to cooperative action for the benefit and development of the child.
Parents lose track of time during a conference, so it becomes the teacher's responsibility to end the conference on time. This is important since other parents who have been scheduled will be waiting. End by standing and saying simply, “It has been most enjoyable talking with you.” This signals to the parents that the conference is near its end. If the parents continue to talk, begin walking to the door. Do whatever is necessary to avoid inconveniencing the parents who are waiting for their conference time.
The follow-up is important. If after-conference reports are to be written, they should be brief, ethical, and highly objective. Make note of the attitudes and contributions made by parents during the conference and mention any decisions that were made. Evaluate whether the conferencing was successful or not and if it resulted in positive benefits for the child. Decide what changes could be made in order to ensure the conference will be a success.
Write a personal thank you letter expressing sincere and honest appreciation to all parents who attended the conferences. Doing so will further better relations between parent, child, teacher, school, and school system.
A Thought in Words
There is no royal road to learning. Euclid Toptolemy, King of Egypt
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Chapter 20
The Adolescent’s Perception of Failure
The following talk was delivered by William Allan Kritsonis during the summer of 1971 at Seattle Pacific University. At the time, Kritsonis was completing the master's degree in education and the talk was given before a live audience of graduate students and professors, thus satisfying one of the special requirements needed for the degree. The talk influenced many people deeply and forced them to re-evaluate their own attitudes about success and failure.
The Adolescent’s Perception of Failure
Upwards of a thousand students commit suicide every year. They had their whole lives ahead of them, and somehow, they lost hope. No one cared, they thought; life was not worth living. They asked themselves: Is that all there is?
Suicide is certainly the ultimate self-punishment for having failed. Life was no longer worth the struggle, the effort, the will.
I would like to take a look with you at the concept of failure-at how adolescents in high school and college see it-and what we, as parents and teachers, have taught them about it.
We have all had a part in it, and we have all had to come to grips with it and to decide what failure actually means to each of us individually.
Success is important in our society, more important, surely, that the desire to live sanely and to enjoy the good things of life which one has worked for. Success for its own sake is valued-valued, and I believed at any cost, and the road to success rationalized in the name of the great American competitive way, at the expense of honest and, perhaps, sanity.
The “F” for failure has become so feared that we in education have revamped our marking system in preference for U's and E's without revamping our attitudes -attitudes of those who should know.
We are apt to be very objective when we look at our students-and we give
them what they deserve and in doing so, feel very smug. We have given out the material, we have given the examinations and now it follows, as night follows day, that we give out the marks. Yet, we forget that there is much more that a teacher gives to his or students, willingly or unwillingly. A teacher gives an example of how to look at life and at people. And if failure is viewed as the worst fate, if it is something that is given the connotation of shame, unworthiness, and hopelessness, then indeed, we have taught much more than English or history or mathematics.
Adolescence marks the trying period of search which may have the significant effects on subsequent personality structure, on later adjustments in the years that lie ahead. Probably, what brings the greatest amount of equalizing balance to the period of adolescence is the presence of significant people in the adolescent's life. Since people become so very important to him, it is the importance of some people who have that ingredient of compassion who can help the adolescent come through this unfolding, transitional period into the fullness of adult life.
The world is full of people who are fearful that they will fail at some tasks or goal and who usually manage to avoid trying for what they want because they construe failure as the worst of all possible crimes.
In a study, it was found that competitive situations around two major motives: either to achieve success... or to avoid failure. The strivers-for success were found more likely to be middle-of-the-roaders in their aspirations or ambitions, where as the failure-avoider will be either excessively cautious or extravagantly reckless in the things he tries. Because failure is painful, he will choose either extreme rather than take the 50-50 chance.
Feelings of adequacy and success may depend more on self-acceptance than on actual achievement. Regardless of actual test performance, self-accepting students tend to be optimistic, non-anxious, and non-competitive. Self-rejecting ones are anxious and unrealistic in goal-setting.
In another study, the subjects were asked to rate themselves on a list of traits as they thought they were, as they hoped they were, as they feared they were, and as they thought others regarded them. The group had first been classified as stable and unstable on the basis of a personality inventory. The stable group rated themselves higher and there was less discrepancy between their self-ratings and the way they thought others would rate them. They were also better liked, better adjusted socially, less situation dominated, and showed less defensive behavior.
Approximately half of those who enter college drop out. Many are in the highest levels of ability. When students drop out, it usually is understood that they have failed. At the college level, a great deal of attention has been given to the question: “What can we learn about those who have failed in the past that will enable us to reject similar persons who might apply for admission in the future?” Little consideration is given to the question: “What might the institution do to prevent failure, to help remedy shortcomings within the college and with the individual student, which produce failure?”
Reasons for coming to college are always multiple. Stress is usually placed on one or another of these:
- to get a better paying job
- status of a degree
- social life-all my friends are going
- avoid work
- get married
- because of parents
Many are disillusioned with what is expected of them. Many find that it's the same old things as high school-all these things which aren't practical. Others who were eager to learn find that it is not the kind of challenge they had expected.
Many entering students are sorry about the time they wasted in high school. They didn't try hard enough; they didn't apply themselves; they were more interested in athletics, social life, or other things. If we go back a bit, we find that there were many things that they were concerned about during those days-some things which were, indeed, are more important to them at the time than geometry or American history, an which sometimes were far more necessary and pressing in order that they might grow up. But, those who observe the adolescent in high school are very often unaware of what he is facing and are not able to understand why he can't buckle down. What they can't understand is that the reason is...that there are many things the adolescent is trying to accomplish and school work often provides him with no stimulation, no incentive for interest or involvement. School is just a bore! And teachers are a bore! And adults, in general, are a bore! Adults are forever talking, but what they say often doesn't seem to mean anything.
A new interest can be sparked in school when there is a teacher who does mean something. But it takes more than one teacher to make a school program relevant. When competition and success are the significant ingredients of a program, then we are apt to be creating egocentric (or self-centered) intellectuals who gloat over their achievements as they look down on those who have successfully developed feelings of worthlessness because-they have lost and lost and lost, and fear that they will probably never win-and only those who win are important.
Our task ought to be to help the adolescent to see that failure is neither good nor bad. It is, however, and inevitable fact of reality. The way we use it in our lives will determine, ultimately, its goodness or badness for us.
Each of us must learn to live with certain limitations in ability. It is only when an individual falls consistently below the norm areas that seem important to him that inferior ability constitutes a serious limitation.
From studies of both high and underachievers in high school, the pattern of the relationship between self-concept and achievement becomes clearer. There is a relationship between positive self-concept and high achievement, negative self-concept and under-achievement. The research does not indicate which is cause or effect. Chances are we can see a circular pattern beginning earlier with perception or experiences. Every experience contributes to the adolescent's evolving picture of himself, which, in turn, becomes a guide to future action.
Parental pressure for success seems to arise naturally out of a parent's desire that this child must have the best that the world has to offer, yet...in the same breath, it may be that many of them see the failure which their son or daughter may face as a failure for themselves. Many parents want their children to be a credit to them, forgetting that if a child is a credit to itself, the other will follow naturally.
Likewise, it is not important to be better than the next guy so much as it is to try to do our best. We should be our own chief and best competition. We cannot always achieve our goal, but we ought to find satisfaction in knowing we did the best we could. Too often, we are teaching the idea of striving for success in high school, in college, in athletics, in all the aspects of living, for the wrong reasons. Let's change our own attitude about success and failure.
A Thought in Words
Chance favors those in motion. Zen
A BRIEF ANALYSIS OF THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS
Oswell Person, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
PhD, University of Iowa
M.Ed., Seattle Pacific University
B.A., Central Washington University
Dr. Person and Dr. Kritsonis provide an analysis of the historical development of higher education for African Americans. The writers emphasize that African Americans have made enormous contributions to America.
Dr. Person and Dr. Kritsonis tell the story by tracing many struggles the Negro experienced to obtain higher education. The primary purpose of the book is to provide readers with a clearer understanding of this brief analysis.
Oswell Person, PhD
&
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Background
In 1619, the seeds of American Slavery (human misery) were planted, but some of its aftermath has continued through Civil War, Reconstruction, Morrill Acts, Plessy vs. Ferguson, Brown vs. Topeka, 1964 Civil Rights Act and the Adams Case. Examples of each issue and the impact on African Americans are treated briefly under the following integrated topics: Historical Development, Civil War/Reconstruction, Freedmen’s Bureau/Churches, Federal Legislation/ Morrill Acts, Status of Blacks in the South/Plessy vs. Ferguson, Desegregating Higher Education/Brown vs. Topeka, Civil Rights/Adams Case, Philanthropic Organizations, United Negro College Fund/UNCF and contributions of HBCU Graduates to American Life/Culture.
Efforts to tell the story of Black Americans raised questions from inception about acculturation into the American Society and to some extent continue today. Therefore, it is not difficult to understand his plight, considering they were debased, stripped of ancestral culture, language, religion and transplanted to a strange land (America). It was here where they were systematically denied education, human treatment and rights. C. Erick Lincoln (black scholar and graduate of Lemoyne College and Fisk University) writing in the summer of 1971, Lincoln states:2
The Negro college born of the turmoil of a war which made black men free with an imperfect freedom, established in a social environment hostile to its presence and committed to its destruction, the Negro college has survived to become one of the singular assets of the Black community and a unique valuable, contributing component in the educational complex of America. More than that, it is an instrument of freedom. Black freedom. The vision of men and women who founded this institution which is a vital aspect of the black heritage, the wise and often sacrificial leadership which nurtured its infancy and guided its development….
Vivian W. Henderson (black male, former president of Clark College, now Clark-Atlanta University) writing in the same journal states it in a different way:
For most of their existence or from origin (italics mine) Negro colleges have served higher education within the context of a social structure built upon concepts of racial dualism, segregation, white supremacy and racial inferiority of black people. Some of the private colleges may not have been founded on the above concepts. They, in part, were founded on the hope of former slaves becoming full members of the American society or dream. (italics mine). State-supported colleges were founded on the principle that the state was obliged to support something for Negroes which it also supported for whites, but with the understanding that whatever it supported for Negroes would be inferior to that which it …3
Another example of Black higher education, as viewed in the American Mind, is observed in the following conversation between Dr. James Cheek, (former) President of Howard University and a high official in the Atomic Energy Commission, a Ph.D. in nuclear physics, (Atomic Energy Commission name was changed by the Energy Reorganization act of 1974) to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.4 In 1971 when Dr. Cheek was returning from Denver, where he was an official delegate to the White House Conference on Youth, the official said:
“I understand the great debate that is taking place at
Howard now is whether Howard is going to become
an excellent institution, or remain a predominantly Black institution.”5
The incompatibility or non-acculturation theme of Blacks into the American society is observed most keenly in education. Although African Americans were denied rights, such as property ownership, voting, and equal treatment under the law, they survived. Consequently it comes as no great surprise that Black Colleges and Universities would suffer from the same conditions.
The impact of the above statements is best understood by examining the “peculiar institution”, American slavery, a century of segregation and discrimination which followed. 6 But in spite of these conditions, one can easily discern a profound sense of loyalty to this country among Black Americans. Therefore, it is especially important that the historical background is understood, because it helps one to appreciate the enormously great contributions of Black Colleges and Universities. Graduates from Historically Black Colleges/ Universities (HBCUs) have made invaluable contributions to the American way of life in all fields of endeavor though faced with incredible odds. Highlights of their contributions are discussed later.
(Excerpts from Book by Person and Kritsonis)
Oswell Person, PhD & William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Excerpts from Book
Historical Development
According to some educational historians, higher education for American Blacks began two hundred plus years after the founding of Harvard College (1636).7 Generally, the accepted dates for the founding of the first black colleges are (1854) Lincoln University in Pennsylvania and (1856) Wilberforce University in Ohio.8 Both of which were private, in the North and had as their original purpose higher education for Blacks. Lincoln University, however, is now under the auspices of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania System of Higher Education and Wilberforce is under the African Methodist Episcopal Church and has been since 1863.9 Although there is evidence that educational opportunity was available, it was generally not baccalaureate as we know it today. For example, some Black Americans were trained through apprenticeships and for teaching. It is most unlikely that teacher training for Blacks then, was a very structured and formalized course of Pedagogy. In addition to the limited number of Blacks who obtained degrees from American Colleges,10 the most notable examples were Edward Jones and John Russwurm of Amherst and Bowdoin respectively, others did however, distinguish themselves intellectually. Such examples as Benjamin Banneker, a noted mathematician and astronomer, Phyllis Wheatly, a great eighteenth century poet, John Chavis and Charles L. Reason were teachers, to name a few. Additionally, in 1858 Myrtilla Miner built a schoolhouse for the higher education of Negro (Black) girls in Washington, D.C.11
Aside from these institutions, higher education (private and public) did not begin to grow and develop until after the Civil War. Prior to this time, especially in the South, it was against the law to teach Blacks. For example, in 1863 West Virginia was the first southern state to make “a separate but equal” provision in its constitution for educating Blacks. Some evidence even after the Civil War, indicate that efforts to educate Blacks were met with strong opposition. But in spite of these circumstances there were systematic plans to organize a program of education for freedmen (public school levels).
Between 1865-1880 a total of 4012 institutions were founded, of these 29 were private (see Table 1) and 11 were public (see Table 2) (tax supported). Several factors contributed to the slow development of Public Institutions. First, there was the traditional attitude of the South toward educating Blacks. Second, there was opposition from those who wanted to keep Blacks in a subservient status. Third, coupled with the above harsh conditions, was an insufficient tax base to support educating large numbers of former slaves. During this same period a number of significant developments paved the way for changes in the lives of emancipated slaves. First was the Freedmen’s Bureau (1865-1872) which provided the key organization, protection and financial support to philanthropic efforts, freedmen and the states.13 This helped lay the crucial groundwork for founding institutions of higher learning. A second development was ratification of the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments which gave citizenship to former slaves and other Black persons. According to Patricia Harris, black female, Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) Secretary in Carter’s Administration, Black Colleges owed their existence to the exclusionary practices of white institutions (North and South) as well as to the failure of states to provide primary and secondary institutions to prepare blacks for admission to a small number of white institutions of higher learning.14 The third development was the inestimable contributions that philanthropy (discussed later) and church groups made to establishing Colleges and Universities for Black Americans.
Some of the groups providing aid to education were, The Friends Associations for Aid to Freedmen, the Board of Freedmen’s Missions of the United Presbyterian Church, the Freedmen’s Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, American Baptist Home Mission Society, American Church Institute of the Episcopal Church. The church groups and organization of the Freedmen’s Bureau were not without certain and unusual personalities, who perhaps provided critical impetus and leadership. For example, such men as, General Oliver Otis Howard (Commissioner, Freedmen’s Bureau), Levi Coffin (abolitionist from North Carolina), Salmon P. Chase (US Senator from Ohio), Henry Ward Beecher (abolitionist from Connecticut), John M. Walden (journalist and Methodist Bishop), Richard S. Rust (advocate of education for Negroes), Mathais W. Baldwin (manufacturer of locomotives/philanthropist), Edward T. Atkinson (economist/industrialist), and William Claflin (Republican governor of Massachusetts, shoe manufacturer) played key roles in the movement.
Between 1865 and 1880 church groups and the Freedmen’s Bureau established some of the most widely known institutions of today. For example, Atlanta University (1865), Fisk University (1866), were founded by the American Missionary Association (AMA). Morehouse College (1867) originally founded as the Augusta Institute, Virginia Union University (1865), Shaw University (1865) and Benedict College (1870) were founded and supported by the American Baptist Home Mission Society. Other church groups, such as the Methodist Episcopal and Presbyterians were also responsible for establishing institutions. These two church groups established such institutions as Rust College (1867), Morgan College (originally Centenary Biblical Institute), which today is Morgan State University, an independent member of the state of Maryland System of Higher Education. The Presbyterians founded the following institutions, Barber-Scotia College (1867), originally Scotia Seminary and Biddle University that same year, now known as Johnson C. Smith University (both in North Carolina), Stillman College (1867) in Alabama, Howard University (1867) founded by the Freedman’s Bureau, Washington DC. Although, schools of higher learning for Blacks were founded by other religious groups, e.g., African Methodist Episcopal (AME) and Christian Methodist Episcopal (CME), they were not founded until the 1870’s (see Table 1).
Osell Person, PhD & William Allan Kritsonis, PhD (Excerpts from Book)
Federal Legislation-Morrill Act
Another important development in higher education was the Morrill Act of 1862 (Federal Legislation). This act provided Federal Aid to education by granting land for States to create and maintain Colleges of Agriculture and the Mechanical Arts. States were to actually sell land granted by the 1862 Act and use proceeds to establish A&M Colleges. There is no question but this was the most significant single piece of Federal legislation affecting public higher education in the nineteenth century. However, it contributed little to higher learning for Black Americans. It was not until the Morrill Act of 1890 or the Second Morrill Act (as it is known in some circles) that made possible the establishment of land grant colleges for Blacks in the South and Border States. In fact, it was the federal government’s first effort of assuring land grant funds for education where the “separate but equal” doctrine existed. Unfortunately, this act strengthened the above concept to the extent that seventeen southern States maintained colleges that became known as the Negro (Black) Land-Grant colleges15. While these institutions were not like the great State institutions developed in the Midwest or the West, e.g., Universities of Wisconsin, Michigan and California, they along with the private colleges provided an immeasurable opportunity for millions of ex-slaves.
The greatest period of growth in the development of historically Black Colleges (HBC’s) was 1881-1896. For example, during this period twenty-eight additional colleges and universities were founded, fourteen less than were founded between 1865-1880. Of the total number (28) fourteen were private (see Table 3) and an equal number were public institutions (see Table 4). Perhaps Tuskegee Institute (1881), Morris Brown (1881), Spelman College (1881), and Bishop College (1881) - no longer in existence, were the most widely known private colleges founded during this time. Of the public institutions founded during the same period, Florida A&M University (1887) popularly known as (FAMU), North Carolina A&T State (1891), Virginia State (1892) and West Virginia State (1891) were perhaps the most widely known.
From 1897 to 1953 the least number of historically Black institutions of higher learning were founded compared to the previous periods of 1865-1880 and 1881-1896. For example, between the period 1897-1953 a total of 15 institutions were established, 7 private and /or church related (see Table 5) and 8 public (see Table 6). Of the public institutions, perhaps Grambling State College was the most widely known because of its Head Football Coach, Eddie Robinson. Of all the church related institutions (for Blacks) founded earlier, I believe this is the first time we note a Roman Catholic College, Xavier University (1925), New Orleans. It is also important to observe that church groups and private agencies were directly or indirectly responsible for establishing the majority, (61%) of all Black Colleges and Universities founded between 1865-1953. The states were not as ambitious in their efforts to establish public institutions, though education is a state matter, even with the help of (federal legislation) Morrill Act of 1862. As stated earlier, several conditions contributed to America’s lack of commitment to higher education for Blacks. First, the Black masses were located in the South. Second, they were not citizens (property) and third, they had no rights. Consequently, the southern White population felt little or no moral, social or legal obligation to educate them. Even when there was support for higher education, its provision was under the doctrine of “separate-but-equal”. Such conditions, it could be safely argued, continued for well over a century.
Before the Civil War, the South made no provisions to educate Black Americans and the North was not much better, although several attempts were made to establish institutions in the North. For example, at the First Annual convention of People of Color in 1831, the convention voted to establish a College in New Haven, Connecticut, but the townspeople resisted. Undaunted, it is reported that another attempt was made in Canaan, New Hampshire, to no avail, the building was destroyed in 1835. According to Bowles and DeCosta, a wealthy Quaker of Philadelphia willed $10,000 for the education of Blacks, but action was deferred until 1839 at which time land was purchased in Philadelphia County and a school established where boys learned farming and shoemaking. This school eventually became the Institute for Colored Youth after going through several stages of development. Between 1850-1852 a building was erected in Philadelphia becoming the Institute for Colored Youth. The institution prepared advanced pupils of both sexes for vocations of teaching and preaching. Additionally, the school offered classical courses and prepared teachers and principals for schools in Philadelphia and the South until 1889. In 1902, it was re-organized and moved to Cheyney, Pennsylvania where it went through the following stages: Cheyney Training Schools for Teachers (1914); Cheyney State Normal School (1920); a degree granting State College (1932); Cheyney State Teachers College (1951); and Cheyney State College (1959)16, now Cheyney State University, a member of the Pennsylvania System of Higher Education. In addition to Lincoln (1854) and Wilberforce (1856) Myrtilla Minor (1858) already mentioned, Avery College in Pennsylvania (1849) was established before the Civil War.
Second, while a limited number of Blacks did obtain some education, it was not because the north encouraged admission to their institutions. Except for Oberlin College, Berea College, Franklin and Rutland Colleges17, a very few colleges admitted Blacks on a continuous basis. Amherst and Bowdin, as stated earlier, graduated the first Black Americans in 1826, but did not graduate any additional Negroes (Blacks) prior to the Civil War.18 What is more significant to note is that Harvard College did not graduate its first Black (Richard Greener) 19,20 until 1870 over two centuries after it was founded. According to Dubois21 only twenty-eight (28) Blacks were awarded baccalaureate degrees from American Colleges and Universities prior to the Civil War. There were however, accounts of Blacks obtaining higher education abroad. Men such as Francis L. Cardoza, James McCune Smith and Robert B. Elliott obtained their higher education in Europe. Cardoza studied at the University of Glasgow, Scotland, Edinburgh and London. Upon his return to America he served in the following three capacities; first as minister of a Congregational Church in New Haven, Connecticut. Second, he was founder and principal of Avery Normal Institute in Charleston, South Carolina until 1868, following which he was elected Secretary of State of South Carolina. He also served as professor of Latin at Howard University and principal of the Colored High School of Washington D.C., that now bears the name Cardoza High School. James McCune Smith studied abroad and was the first Negro professional graduate, receiving medical training at the University of Glasgow. Upon completion of his medical training in 1837 at the University, he studied clinics in Paris, France before returning to New York to establish the practice of medicine.22 Robert B. Elliott, studied high school and college abroad. He attended the High Holborn Academy in London and was admitted to Eaton College. He also studied law under a member of the London bar, following this experience he returned to South Carolina, serving as Congressman from South Carolina from 1873-1875.23
Oswell Person, PhD & William Allan Kritsonis, PhD (Excerpts from Book)
Status of Blacks in the South
What was life like in the South for Blacks? The status of Blacks in this section of America was one of slave, ex-slave. For his ex-slave status, constitutional amendment was required before he was considered a citizen, however, the amendments did not guarantee his rights to education or freedom. Except for North Carolina and Kentucky, the Southern States did not have a system of public education. Subsequently, church related and or private organizations had the major responsibility for educating Blacks. There were instances during Reconstruction (1865-1877) of Blacks receiving higher learning from historically White Colleges and Universities. Two such examples are, T. McCants Stewart and Richard T. Greener. Stewart received his A.B. and LL.B. degrees from the University of South Carolina in 1875. Richard Greener, the first Black to graduate from Harvard College, was awarded a Bachelor of Law in 1876 from the same University.24 But after the Southern States were returned to the original governments, Blacks were again denied admission to historically White Colleges and Universities. In fact, not only were they denied admission, it became illegal for them to attend these institutions.
Perhaps the mood of the South and North regarding Blacks, can be characterized in the cases of Robert vs. City of Boston (1849)25 and Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896).26 In the first case, Roberts vs. City of Boston, was a racial discrimination case in a northern city, but it illustrates the prevailing attitudes toward educating Blacks. Essentially, the issues focused on a Negro girl who tried to enter an all white school in Boston. The city ordinance of course stipulated segregation of white and Negro students. Although the State legislature in 1855 passed a law prohibiting segregation in public schools, the precedent was set and the damage done. The second case, Plessy vs. Ferguson, was a racial segregation controversy involving the State of Louisiana, in which the United States Supreme Court rendered a decision. Homer Plessy,27 (a mulatto) person of mixed parentage, charged that a Louisiana Statute requiring segregation in public transportation violated rights granted by the 13th and 14th Amendments of the US Constitution. The Court ruled in favor of Louisiana, establishing the legal status of Blacks from the 1890’s until 1954. It also declared for the first time, as law, the doctrine of “separate but equal” and remained as the legal guidepost for nearly sixty years.28 Consequently, the enactment of State laws, supported and approved by Federal Courts, meant higher learning was provided mainly by the historically Black institutions of the South. Further support is observed by the number of Blacks (from 1865-1895) graduating from Northern institutions of higher learning. It is reported by Dubois and Dill29 that during this thirty-year period only 194 Negroes graduated from colleges in the North. Of these, 75 graduated from one Oberlin College, with the remainder distributed among 52 other Northern colleges.
Oswell Person, PhD & William Allan Kritsonis, PhD (Excerpts from book)
Philanthropic Organizations
As was indicated earlier, public education and historically Black colleges (HBCs) were, in addition to church organizations, assisted by philanthropic organizations. Beginning in 1867, George F. Peabody, established the Peabody Education Fund,53 the first set up to provide general aid to education in southern and southwestern States. The funds were devoted principally to establishing permanent public school systems for both races. While most of the funds were given to White schools, Black schools and colleges did benefit indirectly. When the Peabody Education Fund was discontinued in 1914, it left $350,000 for the John F. Slater Fund to be used specifically for Black education.
The next fund was established in 1882 by John F. Slater and was called the John F. Slater Fund.54 This fund was begun with one million dollars specifically to aid Black public and higher education. Over a fifty-year period (1882-1932) it is reported that approximately two million dollars were given to forty-eight mostly Black colleges. These funds were used for improving the quality of Black teachers by raising salaries or (scholarships) training. For example, it was a Slater Fellowship for Graduate Study abroad, which enabled W.E.B. Dubois to pursue two years of doctoral study at the University of Berlin. The Slater Fund, for the first thirty years focused on improving the quality of teachers in historically Black colleges, private as well as denominational. As a result of Booker T. Washington’s influence, industrial and vocational programs were funded. Hampton and Tuskegee Institutes received very large grants until about 1906.55 The Slater Fund assisted colleges until 1911, at which time it began to assist with the founding and development of county training schools for Blacks. Interest in county schools increased to such a level that between 1929 and 1931 only about 25 to 30 percent of its appropriations were dedicated to colleges.
Effective in 1937, the Peabody Fund (1867), the Slater Fund (1882), the Negro Rural School Fund (1907), formerly the Anna T. Jones Foundation and the Randolph Fund, later merged into the Southern Education Foundation, Inc.56 whose main function and purpose was to advance education and support equal educational opportunity for Blacks in Southern States.
Another permanent fund set up exclusively for Black education was the Fund for Colored People, established in 1888 by Daniel Hand.57 This fund, consisting of over one million dollars was administered by the American Missionary Association (AMA) to help the association in the field of Black education, namely colleges.
In 1903,58 the General Education Board was founded by John D. Rockefeller to aid Black education generally. Before 1903, Black colleges had received aid from the Rockefeller family who at this point offered one million dollars to an organization that would aid education without regard to race, religion or sex. The General Board had many objectives, e.g., building and equipping Schools, aid to Colleges, Universities, teacher-training programs and established several Black University Centers in Atlanta, Nashville, New Orleans and the nation’s capitol. The Board also provided aid for teacher’s salaries at private Black colleges, scholarship grants for advance study and aid to Meharry and Howard University Medical Schools. During a thirty year period 1902-1932, over 32 million dollars was awarded to Black colleges and schools.59 According to Bowles and DeCosta,60 up to 1964, the Board made the largest direct contribution to (HBCs) and Black education totaling 63 million dollars, before it discontinued its active program in 1956.
The Phelps-Stokes Fund was established in 191161 according to the will of Caroline Phelps Stokes. Among its purposes was the improvement of education for Blacks, both in Africa and the United States. It is interesting to note that this is the oldest existing foundation, which from inception emphasized service to Black Americans and Africans. While the Fund earlier on contributed about thirty percent of its resources to Black colleges, and schools, that was not its most significant contribution. The greatest contribution to Black education was its participation in the first two surveys of Negro education, sponsored by the U.S. Bureau of Education. These surveys are given the credit for providing impetus for raising standards in Black colleges. They were responsible for changing the image of paternalism through the acquisition of Black leadership and influence. In addition to providing Black colleges with explicit recommendations for improvement the surveys brought broader recognition and accreditation. The survey findings were responsible for the approval of Black Colleges by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools.62
In 1917 the Julius Rosenwald Fund was established with an estimated forty million dollars. The Fund was set up after he had donated money to help improve southern rural schools and high schools for Blacks. The purpose of this Fund was to provide aid for buildings, equipment, current expenses and materials for libraries. The Fund also gave aid to Black College faculty engaged in advanced studies at the Master’s and Doctoral levels. Additionally, it awarded fellowships to those who showed great potential, irrespective of race. The Julius Rosenwald Fund dissolved its business in 1948 after expending more than 22 million dollars on education, health and medical services, fellowships and race relations intended to improve conditions among Black Americans.63
Oswell Person, PhD & William Allan Kritsonis, PhD (Excerpts from book)
The United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
In 1943, Dr. F. D. Patterson, then president of Tuskegee Institute wrote an article for the Pittsburgh Courier in which he stated the plight of Black Colleges:
Private Colleges for Negroes (Black) have carried the brunt of our American educational effort for the better part of this experience. They yet educate, to the extent of their means, nearly 50 percent of those who receive college training….. These Negro, Black, institutions may well take a cue from the general program of organization which seems to involve most charitable efforts today. Various and sundry drives (financial) are being unified with a reduction in overhead for publicity and in behalf of a more purposeful and pointed approach to the giving public.64
His article, along with a series of conferences with Presidents of other Black Colleges; (The Julius Rosenwald Fund and the General Education Board) helped to lay the ground work for the United Negro College Fund (UNCF). On April 15, 1944, the United Negro College Fund was chartered in the State of New York. It is very important to note, this was the first time in the history of American education that private educational institutions of higher learning had joined in cooperative fund raising. It can be emphasized that one of the significant contributions of UNCF is the financing of higher education. Since 1944, many joint educational organizations, whose objective is fund raising, have been established (see the Encyclopedia of Associations and the Foundations Directory). In 1944, there were twenty-seven65 charter members, later there were forty-two, with Morris College of Sumter, South Carolina being the most recent member. Total membership has changed (discussed later). Membership then, as now, is restricted to privately supported Black Colleges, many of which are church related. These Colleges agreed to delegate fund raising responsibility for current purposes, e.g., teacher salaries, library materials, scholarships, equipment, etc., to UNCF. Money for buildings would continue to be raised by the individual institutions, a responsibility which eventually shifted to UNCF (discussed later).
In the spring of 1944, the first UNCF annual campaign was begun with Walter Hoving serving as chairman. This campaign was enormously successful, appealing to individuals, foundations, alumnae and corporations for a total of $765,000.66 In fact, this amount was approximately three times the efforts of individual Colleges during the previous year. As a direct result of the 1944 campaign it was learned that:67
1) Individuals would support a group of Colleges, destroying the myth that people would only support an individual College.
2) Alumnae, though loyal to their Alma Mater, would work for and support higher education for Black Americans.
3) American business would contribute to the support of higher education.
These answers were significant in that they suggested another means by which Black Colleges and Universities, specifically, and higher education in general, could be financed. The credit for this far reaching and important break-through in financing higher education goes to the United Negro College Fund, from which Black Colleges and Universities have received millions and millions of dollars since its inception. For example, in the 1981 and 1982 campaigns alone, over forty million dollars were raised.68
As stated earlier, the United Negro College Fund had as its primary responsibility the raising of funds for current operations, and individual institutions would be responsible for buildings and endowment funds. However, by 1950 it was obvious that individual member Colleges were not able, or at least were not successful in raising capital funds. As a result, UNCF was asked to assume responsibility for organizing a campaign funds for buildings. This venture was headed by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. along with other prominent businessmen; by 1954 had raised eighteen million dollars.69
In 1963, member colleges asked UNCF to organize another drive, this time the funds would be used for expanding the physical plants. The projected aim was to raise fifty million dollars, thirty of which would be raised jointly by the Fund and twenty million dollars by individual member institutions. This growing need to strengthen private Black institutions was discussed with President Kennedy, who lent strong support and persuaded Charles Mortimer of General Food to lead the campaign. The Ford Foundation provided a challenge grant of fifteen million dollars and by mid 1964 the first thirty million had been raised.70 The individual member Colleges eventually raised an estimated ten million, and in two capital campaigns UNCF had raised forty-eight million dollars. It is significant to note that in its third capital (conducted between 1977-1980) UNCF raised over sixty-million dollars.71 In addition to helping UNCF Colleges to build and improve construction, capital campaign, funds also enable these institutions to participate in the College Endowment Funding Plan, hereafter referred to as (CEFP), which is a unique project designed by Dr. Frederick D. Patterson, founder of UNCF. CEFP helps to build endowments at member colleges by investing funds loaned by insurance companies at below market rates with gift funds raised by UNCF member institutions and Capital Resources Development Programs (CRDP) funds provided by UNCF. It is important to note that CEFP has invested approximately twenty-five million dollars in bonds, which in twenty five years, (when investments mature and loans are repaid) the nineteen participating UNCF Colleges will have added $98 million dollars to their endowments and operating incomes.72
In addition to annual fund campaigns and intermittent capital drives (without which many Black Colleges and Universities could not have survived) UNCF provides other invaluable services to these institutions. For example, UNCF monitors legislation and governmental affairs at the National level for member institutions. It also helped formulate legislation that permits Title III Funds to be used (through a Federal matching fund program) for building endowments at financially hard pressed (HBCUs). The Fund was one of many nonprofit organizations that testified in Congress against an increase in non-profit postal rates, and it supported legislation that allows citizens who do not itemize their tax returns to make charitable deductions. It was UNCF that suggested that a mini-competition (to the U.S. Office of Education) be held among (HBCUs) which resulted in over eight million dollars in grants at the end of 1982.73 Special projects, such as the Career Advancement Institute (funded by the U.S. Department of Labor) made it possible for over one hundred educators, researchers and students to attend the conference on Current Research in Career Advancement: The Position of Black Americans, UNCF created the Career Advancement Institute for the purpose of increasing the quantity and quality of career advancement and mobility research on Black youth. It also wanted to encourage Blacks interested in research as well as Black institutions to participate in this research. Some of the topics researched thus far, are career expectations and aspirations of youth, the impact of public policy on career mobility, approaches taken by educational institutions to career development, and development of a profile of Black workers in various occupations.74
UNCF has expanded its basic purpose of fund raising to include Institutional Services, Research and Education Services. For example, institutional services for example, involve improving member Colleges in areas common to all, sharing the College’s experience, research, innovations and personnel. In the area of Research Services, UNCF provides background studies and position papers which serve as the central foci for all forty-two (42) member institutions.75 Some examples of this research, are the series of papers on “The Financial Problems of Private Colleges,” “A Directory of Black Colleges and Universities, “A Survey of Voluntary Support of UNCF Institutions,” “Annual Reports” and the “UNCF Statistical Reports.” In the area of Education Services, UNCF seeks to help improve the quality of programs at member institutions. Some examples of Education Services are: student recruitment sessions, faculty fellowship program and a scholarship program. The recruitment sessions have permitted UNCF to conduct combined information and admissions counseling. Through the fellowship and scholarship programs, UNCF has been able to strengthen the quality of faculty by awarding doctoral fellowships, i.e., Charles A. Dana Faculty Improvement Fund, IBM, the Lilly Endowment, Inc. and many others. As for student scholarships, UNCF provides financial assistance through the 21st Century Scholars Program for academically superior undergraduates and graduating seniors. The 21st Century Scholars Program is new as of 1982; made possible by Ambassador Walter H. Annenberg.76
In 1990 Walter H. Annenberg pledged $50 million to UNCFs campaign the year it completed a $280 million capital campaign to help member institutions upgrade facilities and expand endowments. UNCF has been responsible for bringing in more than $1.6 billion over 12 years. In addition, under the leadership of the Honorable William H. Gray, III (1991-2004) UNCF obtained the contract to administer the One Billion Gates Millennium Scholarship Program, created by Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. This is the largest minority scholarship program serving high achieving low-income African American, Hispanic, Asian Pacific and Native American students. UNCF has also created the Frederick C. Patterson Institute for the purpose of collecting and analyzing data on issues concerning the educational attainment of African Americans from Pre-K through adulthood. UNCF has expanded its stellar programs such as CEFP and CRDP to include the Technology Enhancement Capital Campaign (TECC) to support and improve technology in member institutions.
UNCF has also created the United Negro College Fund Special Programs Corporation (UNCFSP), programs designed to help HBCUs as well as other institutions that serve minorities. As a tribute to the extraordinary leadership of William H. Gray, III UNCF has established the Pursuing the Dream Fund, which is to provide support to students. UNCF without a doubt has made tremendous and invaluable contributions to HBCU institutions77. Likewise, graduates of HBCUs have made incalculable contributions to America and its way of life. In the next few pages these contributions will be briefly highlighted.
Contributions of HBCUs in America78
HBCUs, while they represent a small fraction of American colleges and universities, they graduate a majority of African Americans. It is estimated that of the 105 HBCUs, 75% of all African Americans receive their degrees from these institutions. According to the June 3, 2004 Black Issues in Higher Education, HBCUs conferred 22% of bachelor’s degrees compared to other colleges and universities. This means HBCUs degree production is at an extremely high rate. HBCUs through its graduates have made enviable contributions to America in every facet of the society. Over half of all African American professionals are graduates of HBCUs, nine of the top ten colleges that are graduating the most African Americans who earn PhD’s are HBCUs. More than 50% of the nations African American public school teachers and 70% of African American dentists earned degrees at HBCUs. Two HBCU female institutions, Spelman and Bennett Colleges, produce half of the nations African American doctorates in all science fields. Almost half of the current African American members of Congress are graduates of HBCUs. An extraordinary list of noticeably personalities such as, Ron Brown, Ralph Ellison, Benjamin Hooks, Langston Hughes, Jesse Jackson and Thurgood Marshall are alumni of HBCUs. Contributions of HBCU graduates reads like a who’s who directory in all facets of professional endeavors. Additional contributions of graduates of HBCUs are further illustrated by the following personalities:
Debbie Allen-Howard University, TV Show/Fame/Choreographer
Alvin Boutte-Xavier University, Founder/CEO Indecor (largest Black financial institution in the U.S.)
Ed Bradley-Cheyney State, 60 Minutes
*Ron Brown-Tennessee State, Head of Democratic Party and Secretary of Commerce
*Ossie Davis-Howard University, Actor/Activist
David Dinkins-Howard University, Former NYC mayor
*Ralph Ellison-Tuskegee University, Author The Invisible Man
*James Farmer-Wily College, Civil Rights activist
Shirley Franklin-Howard University, Former D.C. mayor
Nikki Giovanni-Fisk University, Poet
Deborah Hyde: M.D.-Tugaloo College Prominent neurosurgeon
*Maynard Jackson-Morehouse College Former Atlanta mayor
Samuel L. Jackson-Morehouse College Actor
*James Weldon Johnson-Clark Atlanta University Wrote the Negro National Anthem
*Barbara Jordan-Texas Southern University State Representative/U.S. Congresswoman
Vernon Jordan-Howard University, Former UNCF/Urban League head
Sharon Pratt Kelly-Howard University, Former D.C. mayor
*Martin Luther King, Jr.-Morehouse College, Nobel Peace prize winner/ Civil Rights activist
Spike Lee-Morehouse College, Filmmaker
*Reginald Lewis-Virginia State, CEO of TLC/Beatrice
Phylicia Rashad-Howard University, Actor/TV wife Bill Cosby Show
David Satcher, M.D.-Morehouse College Former Surgeon General and CDC Director
Ruth Simmons, PhD-Dillard University President Brown University
Louis Sullivan, M.D.-Morehouse College Former Secretary, HEW/ President, Morehouse College of Medicine
Lynn Whitfield-Howard University, Actress
Douglas Wilder-Howard University, Former governor of Virginia
Andrew Young-Howard University, Former UN ambassador
*Whitney Young-Kentucky State, Head Urban League
The above list of notable accomplishments of HBCU graduates does not exhaust the number of persons who have made lasting contributions to America. However, it is hoped that such listing of graduates will reinforce the attitude and inform others of the value of HBCUs in helping to build and strengthen all facets of America.
*Deceased
Oswell Person, PhD & William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
National Researchers
ENDNOTES
1 Adams vs. Richardson, Federal Reporter, Second Series, Volume 480, F.2nd, (St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Company, 1973), pp. 1159-1166 and Virgil A. Cliff, “Educating the American Negro”, in The American Negro Reference Book, John P. Davis, ed., (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1969), pp. 360-395.
2 C. Erick Lincoln, The Negro Colleges and Cultural Change”, Daedlus, (Summer, 1971), p.606.
3 Vivian W. Henderson, “Negro Colleges Face the Future”, Daedlus, (Summer, 1971), p.630.
4 US Government Manual 1983-84, (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1983), p. 583.
5 HED, “An Interview with James Cheek”, April, 1977, p. 1.
6 John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans, 3rd ed., (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1967), pp. 185-213.
7 The College Blue Book, Narrative Description, 19th ed. (New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, 1983), p.296, and John D. Pulliam, History of Education in America, (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1968) p.10.
8 Frank Bowles and Frank DeCosta, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Eduucation, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1971), p.20, and Harry A. Ploski, Reference Library of Black America Book I, (New York: Bellweather Publishing Company, Inc., 1971), pp.18-19.
9 The College Blue Book, Narrative Description, pp.549, 595.
10 Mabel M. Smythe, ed., The Black American Reference Book, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1976), pp.411-412, and Bowles, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education. pp.11-17.
11 Jeanne L. Noble, “The American Negro Woman”, in The Negro Reference Book, John P. Davis, ed., pp.534-535.
12 Bowles, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education, pp.286-295.
13 Clift, “Educating the American Negro”, in The American Negro Reference Book, John P. Davis, ed., p.366.
14 Patricia R. Harris, “The Negro College and Its Community” Daedlus, (Summer, 1971, p. 720.
15 Virgil A. Clift, The American Negro Reference Book, John P. Davis, ed., p.368.
16 Bowles, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education, pp.22-24.
17 Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans, 3rd ed., pp.230-31.
18 Bowles, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education, pp.12-14.
19 Ibid.
20 Langston Hughes and Milton Meltzer, A Pictorial History of the Negro, 3rd ed; (New Crown Publishing, Inc., 1969), p.219.
21 W.E.B. DuBoise and A.G. Dill, “The College Bred Negro American”, in Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education, by Frank Bowles and Frank DeCosta, (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1971), p.12.
22 Bowles, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education, p.19, and Concise Dictionary of American Biography, (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1964), p.972.
23 Bowles, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education, p.20, and The Ebony Handbook, (Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, 1974), p.378.
24 Ibid., p.33.
25 C. Erick Lincoln, The Negro Pilgrimage in America: The Coming Age of the Black Americans, rev. ed., (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, 1969), pp.78-79.
26 Dictionary of American History, 2nd ed. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1940), p.287.
27 Mable M. Smythe, ed., The Black American Reference Book, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1976), p.413.
28 Lincoln, The Negro Pilgrimage in America:…, p.79.
29 W.E.B. DuBoise and A.G. Dill, “The College Bred Negro”, in Between Two Worlds:…, by Frank Bowles and Frank DeCosta, p.33.
30 Rufus B. Atwood, “The Origin Development of the Negro Public College With Especial Reference to the Land-Grant College”, The Journal of Negro Education, (Summer, 1962), pp.244-46.
31 Samuel H. Shannon, “Land-Grant College Legislation and Black Tennesseans: A Case Study in the Politics of Education”, History of Education Quarterly, (Summer, 1962), pp.140-41.
32 Jean Preer, “Lawyers vs. Educators: Changing Perceptions of Desegregation in Public Higher Education”, The Journal of Higher Education, (March/April, 1982), p.129.
33 Statutes At Large, Volume 26, (1890), pp.417-19.
34 Ibid., p.418.
35 U.S. Congress, Statutes At Large, Volume 27, Chapter 254, (July 26, 1892) in “Lawyers vs. Educators: Changing Perceptions of Desegregation in Public Higher Education”, The Journal of Higher Education, (March/April, 1982), p.121.
36 Felix V. Baxter, “The Affirmative Duty to Desegregate Institutions of Higher Education-Defining the Role of the Traditionally Black College”, Journal of Law and Education, (January, 982), p.4.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid., p.6.
41 Robert E. Cushman and Robert F. Cushman, Cases in Constitutional Law, 3rd ed. (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967), pp.1040-42.
42 Ibid.
43 Baxter, “The Affirmative Duty to Desegregate Institutions of Higher Education-Defining the Role of the Traditionally Black College”, p.7.
44 Ibid., p.9
45 Ibid., p.11
46 John A. Adams and Joan M. Burke, Civil Rights: A Current Guide to the People, Organizations, and Events, 2nd ed., (New York: R.R. Bowker Company), p.147.
47 Baxter, “The Affirmative Duty to Desegregate Institutions of Higher Education-Defining the Role of the Traditionally Black College”, Journal of Law and Education, (January, 1982), p.19.
48 Adams, Kenneth et al. vs. Elliot Richardson, Federal Supplement, 351, (St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Company, 1973), pp.636-642, and the Chronicle of Higher Education, “The Status of College Desegregation in 19 States”. The Chronicle of Higher Education. (July 6, 1981), p.8.
49 Adams, Kenneth et al. vs. Joseph Califano, Jr., Federal Supplement, 430, (St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Company, 1977), pp.118-120.
50 Baxter, “The Affirmative Duty to Desegregate Institutions of Higher Education-Defining the Role of the Traditionally Black College”, Journal of Law and Education, (January, 1982), p.23.
51 Charles S. Farrell, “5 States Make Progress on Desegregation but Georgia Falls Short, U.S. Asserts”, The Chronicle of Higher Education, (April 11, 1984), p.23.
52 The Chronicle of Higher Education, “The Road to the N.C. Desegregation Plan”, (June 25, 1983), p.7.
53 Smythe, The Black American Reference Book, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1976), p.481, and Bowles, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education, p.44.
54 Ibid.
55 Bowles, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education, p.45.
56 Marianna O. Lewis, ed. The Foundation Directory, 5th ed. (New York: The Foundation Center, 1975), p.75.
57 Smythe, The Black American Reference Book, p.481.
58 Ibid.
59 Ibid. p.482.
60 Bowles, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education, p.45.
61 The Ebony Handbook, (Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, Inc., 1974), p.160, and Smythe, The Negro Reference Book, p.482.
62 Bowles, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education, p.47.
63 Ibid., p.46.
64 Ebony Handbook, (Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, Inc., 1974), p.139.
65 Ebony Handbook, (Chicago: Johnson Publishing, Inc., 1966), p.161.
66 Ibid.
67 Ibid., p.162.
68 United Negro College Fund, 1981 Annual Report, (New York, 1981), p.7 and the 1982 Annual Report, p.5.
69 Ebony Handbook, (Chicago: Johnson Publishing, Inc., 1966), p.162.
70 Ibid.
71 United Negro College Fund, 1982 Annual Report, p.17.
72 United Negro College Fund, 1981 Annual Report, p.19.
73 United Negro College Fund, 1982 Annual Report, p.21.
74 Ibid.
75 Ebony Handbook, (Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, Inc., 1974), pp.139-41.
76 United Negro College Fund, 1981 Annual Report, pp.20-21.
77 United Negro College Fund, 2004 Annual Report, p.7
78 United Negro College Fund, www.uncf.org/aboutus/hbcus.asp , May 12, 2005, pp.1-4 and pp.2-3.
Hundreds of sources: articles, books, government reports and websites were reviewed in preparation of this project. But they were narrowed down to the ones sited here. Many sources were helpful in providing knowledge and understanding of the higher education for African-Americans. The more useful sources were cited in the end notes and bibliography.
Oswell Person, PhD & William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Historically Private or Church Related Negro (Black) Four-year Colleges and Universities
Table 1. Founded Between 1865 – 1880
Location Institution *Year of *Support/ **Regional
Founding Control Accreditation
1. Selma, AL Selma University 1878 MBC Not given
2. Tuscaloosa, AL Stillman College 1876 Presb. U.S Yes / SA
3. Talladega, AL Talladega College 1867 AMA – Ind. Yes / SA
4. Little Rock, AK Philander Smith College 1877 Methodist Yes / NCA
5. District of Columbia Howard University 1867 Independent Yes / NSA
6. Atlanta, GA Atlanta University 1865 Independent Yes / SA
7. Atlanta, GA Clark College 1869 Methodist Yes / SA
8. Atlanta, GA Morehouse College 1867 Independent Yes / SA
9. Louisville, KY Simmons University 1879 NBC SABI
10. New Orleans, LA Dillard University 1868 Independent Yes / SA
11. Holly Springs, MS Rust College 1866 Methodist Yes / SA
12. Tougaloo, MS Tougaloo College 1869 AMA and UCMS Yes / SA
13. Concord, NC Barber-Scotia College 1867 Presbyterian Mem/ SA
14. Greensboro, NC Bennett College 1873 Methodist Yes / SA
15. Charlotte, NC Johnson C. Smith University 1867 Presbyterian Yes / SA
16. Salisbury, NC Livingstone College 1879 AMEZ Yes / SA
17. Raleigh, NC St. Augustine’s College 1867 Protestant Episcopal Yes / SA
Oswell Person, PhD & William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Oswell Person, PhD & William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
National Researchers
SELECTED REFERENCES
Adams vs. Richardson, Federal Reporter, Second Series, Volume 480, F.2nd, (St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Company, 1973), pp. 1159-1166 and Virgil A. Cliff, Educating the American Negro”, in The American Negro Reference Book, John P. Davis, ed., (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1969), pp. 360-395.
Adams, John A. and Joan M. Burke, Civil Rights: A Current Guide to the People, Organizations, and Events, 2nd ed., (New York: R.R. Bowker Company), p. 147.
Adams, Kenneth et. al. vs. Elliot Richardson, Federal Supplement, 351 (St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Company, 1973), pp.636-642, and The Chronicle of Higher Education, “The Status of College Desegregation in 19 States”. The Chronicle of Higher Education, (July 6, 1981), p. 8.
Atwood, Rufus B. The Origin Development of the Negro Public College With Especial Reference to the Land-Grant College”, The Journal of Negro Education, (Summer, 1962), p. 244-46.
Baxter, Felix V. “The Affirmative Duty to Desegregate Institutions of Higher Education-Defining the Role of the Traditionally Black College”, Journal of Law and Education, (January, 1982), p. 4.
Borden, Victor M. H. and Pamela C. Brown. “The Top 100: Interpreting the Data”. Black Issues in Higher Education, June 3, 2004, pp.37-79.
Borden, Victor M.H. and Pamela C. Brown. “The Top 100: Interpreting the Data”. Black Issues in Higher Education, July 29, 2004, pp.33-93.
Bowles, Frank and Frank Decosta, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro HigherEducation, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1971), p. 20, and Harry A. Ploski, Reference Library of Black America Book I, (New York: Bellweather Publishing Company, Inc., 1971), pp.18-19.
The Chronicle of Higher Education, The Road to the N.C. Desegregation Plan”, (June 25, 2005), p. 7.
Clift, Virgil A. The American Negro Reference Book, John P. Davis, ed., p. 368.
The College Blue Book, Narrative Description, 19th ed. (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1983), p. 296, and John D. Pulliam, History of Education in America (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1968), p. 10.
The Crisis. “50th Anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education: The Verdict on Equal Education”. A Special Report, May/June 2004, pp.21-47.
Cushman Robert E. and Cushman Robert F. Cases in Constitutional Law, 3rd ed. (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967), pp. 1040-42.
Dictionary of American History, 2nd ed. (New York: Charles Scribners’ Sons, 1940,p.287)
DuBoise, W.E.B. and Dill, A.G. The College Bred Negro American”, in Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education, by Frank Bowles and Frank Decosta, (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1971), p.12.
The Ebony Handbook, (Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, Inc., 1974), p.160, and Smythe, The Negro Reference Book, p. 482.
Farrell, Charles S. “5 States Make Progress on Desegregation but Georgia Falls Short,U.S. Asserts”, The Chronicle of Higher Education, (April 11, 1984), p.23.
Franklin, John Hope. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans, 3rd ed., (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1967), pp. 185-213.
Hamilton, Kendra, et. al. “The View from Topeka”. Black Issues in Higher Education, (May 20, 2004), pp. 32-39.
Harris, Patricia R. “The Negro College and Its Community” Daedlus, (Summer, 1971),p.720.
HED, “An Interview with James Cheek”, April, 1977, p. 1.
Henderson, Vivian W. “Negro Colleges Face the Future”. Daedlus, (Summer 1971), p.630.
Hughes, Langston and Milton Meltzer, A Pictorial History of the Negro, 3rd ed; (New Crown Publishing, Inc., 1969), p.219.
Lewis, Marianna O., ed. The Foundation Directory, 5th ed. (New York: The Foundation Center, 1975), p. 75.
Lincoln, C. Erick, “The Negro Colleges and Cultural Change”, Daedlus, (Summer, 1971), p. 606.
Noble, Jeanne L. “The American Negro Woman”, in The Negro Reference Book, John P.Davis, ed., pp.534-535.
Preer, Jean. “Lawyers vs. Educators: Changing Perceptions of Desegregation in Public Higher Education”, The Journal of Higher Education, (March/April, 1982), p. 129.
Quarles, Benjamin. Black Abolitionists. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970.
Shannon, Samuel H. “Land-Grant College Legislation and Black Tennesseans: A CaseStudy in the Politics of Education”, History of Education Quarterly, (Summer 1962),pp. 140-41.
Smythe, Mabel M., ed., The Black American Reference Book, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1976), pp.411-412, and Bowles, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education. pp.11-17.
United Negro College Fund, 1981 Annual Report, (New York, 1981), p. 7 and the 1982 Annual Report, pp. 5 and 17.
U.S. Congress, Statutes At Large, Volume 27, Chapter 254, (July 26, 1892) in “Lawyers vs. Educators: Changing Perceptions of Desegregation in Public Higher Education”, The Journal of Higher Education, (March/April, 1982), p. 121.
U.S. Government Manual 1983-84, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1983), p. 583.
Watkins, Williams H., James H. Lewis and Victoria’s Chou. Race and Education: TheRoles of History and Society in Educating African American Students. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2001.
Watkins, William H. The White Architects of Black Education: Ideology and Power in America, 1865-1954. New York, Teacher’s College Press, 2001.
Dr. Kritsonis Lectures at the University of Oxford, England
In 2005, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis lectured at the Oxford Round Table at Oriel College in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England. The topic of the lecture was the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of meaning.
Dr. Kritsonis Receives Distinguished Alumni Award
In 2004, Dr. William Kritsonis was recognized as the Central Washington University Alumni Association Distinguished alumnus for the College of Education and professional Studies. Dr. Kritsonis was nominated by alumni, former students, friends, faculty, and staff. Final selection was made by the Alumni Association Board of Directors. Recipients are CWU graduates of 20 years or more and are recognized for achievement in their professional field and have made a positive contribution to society.
About Dr. Kritsonis
Dr. William Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington university, Ellenburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. He also served as a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.
Dr. Kritsonis began his career as a teacher. He has served education as a school principal, superintendent of schools, director of field experiences and student teaching, consultant, invited guest professor, author, editor-in-chief, and publisher. Dr. Kritsonis has earned tenure at the highest academic rank as a professor at two major universities.
Dr. Kritsonis lectures and conducts seminars and workshops on a variety of topics. He is author or coauthor of more than 100 articles in professional journals and several books. His popular book School Discipline: The Art of Survival is now scheduled for its fourth edition. He is author of the textbook William Kritsonis PhD on Schooling that is used by many colleagues at colleges and universities throughout the nation.
Dr. Kritsonis has traveled extensively throughout the United States and worldwide. Some recent international tours include Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Turkey, Italy, Greece, Monte Carlo, Spain, England, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Poland, Germany, and many more.
Dr. Kritsonis is founder of Nation FORUM Journals (since 1983). These publications represent a group of highly respected academic professional periodicals. Over 2,500 authors have been published in these journals. In 1983, he found the National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal-(NFEAS) now recognized by many as the united States’ leading national recognized scholarly academic refereed, juried, peer-reviewed journal in educational administration and supervision.
In 1987, Dr. Kritsonis found the National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal (NFAERJ) whose aim is to conjoin the efforts of researchists world-wide with those of educators. He founded the National FORUM of Teacher Education Journal (NFTE), National FORUM of Special Education Journal (NFSE), National FORUM of Multicultural Issues Journal (NFMI), and International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity (IJ SAID). In 1997, he established the Electronic Journals Division of National FORUM Journals that publishes articles daily on the website: www.nationalforum.com. Over 250,000 readers visit the website yearly.
Dr. Kritsonis has served in professorial roles at Central Washington university, Washington; Salisbury State University, Maryland; Northwestern State University, Louisiana; Wright State University, Ohio; McNeese State University, Louisiana; and Louisiana State University at Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Currently, Dr. Kritsonis is Professor of Educational Leadership at Prairie View A&M University a Member of the Texas A&M University System. He teaches in the newly established PhD doctoral program in Educational Leadership. Dr. Kritsonis taught the Inaugural class session in the doctoral program at the start of the fall 2004 academic year. He lives in Houston, Texas.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
PVAMU, Texas A&M University System
Arguably, U.S. expenditures on education per pupil exceed those of all other nations; yet, standardized tests show that our students under-perform those of many other countries. This is a serious problem in a high-technology world in which an increasingly larger share of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is conceptual rather than material. If our graduates lack the complement of skills needed to compete for jobs in a global economy, it would be difficult for the U.S. to maintain its technological and economic primacy among the nations of the world (CNN, 2000).
The relatively low performance of our students in standardized tests has raised an alarm in the U.S. Congress. In 1978, Congress passed Goals 2000: Educate America Act that aimed to improve educational outcomes and to develop teachers’ instructional skills. More recently, President Bush made the No Child Left behind Act, the centerpiece of an educational initiative that compels schools to meet federally required results (U.S. Department of Education, 2006).
Online education presents unusual challenges and opportunities for educators and students alike (Moskal et al, 2006). Increasingly, students at all educational levels (primary, secondary, post-secondary, continuing education), participate online in hybrid, mixed mode, and Web-enhanced face-to-face courses. The increased capability of digital communication in all formats has brought a strong shift from people working individually towards people who can work collaboratively (Larreamendy-Joem & Leihardt, 2006). As the world moves into the information age and away from the industrial age, and as the economy becomes progressively more global, collaboration has become a necessity. The new workplace model often requires that employees work together and effectively as a team (U.S. Department of Labor, 1999). It is important to determine to what extent online education empowers students and imparts to them the skills needed in order to succeed.
Background of the Problem
When something new comes along sometimes it is embraced to excess. Online education is the new kid in the metaphorical block of higher education. Schools face pressure from students who demand more online courses. They also face budget constrains, and in this regard online courses are a godsend since enrollments and revenues may grow without a concomitant increase in outlays for physical plant. Members of the learning community are demanding Internet-based classes for widely varied reasons. Online courses have gained in popularity among non-traditional students who appreciate online courses because of the flexibility, including learning outside the normal classroom schedule constraints (Lapsley & Moody, 2006). Numerous nontraditional students are now seeking higher education. An Internet-based course allows these students to attend class at their convenience. Typically, nontraditional students are funding their educations themselves and often have limited financial resources. Internet-based classes can also be less expensive than traditional on-campus classes, though this is not always the case. Reduced cost and convenience may mean an education to someone who otherwise would not have such an opportunity (Almala, 2006).
In this pressure-cooker environment, online course offerings will experience supernormal growth. Therefore, it is extremely important to attempt to measure exactly what is being gained by this phenomenal growth (Moskal et al., 2006).
Statement of the Problem
Online education is the fastest growing segment of the higher education industry. This growth is not limited to the United States. According to Debeb (2001) over 90 million students enrolled worldwide in 986 distance teaching institutions in 2001. He projected this number will grow to at least 120 million by the year 2025 (Spague, 2007). According to a recent study by the Sloan Consortium, an online education group, nearly 3.48 million students took at least one online course during the fall of 2006 semester compare to 2.35 million reported in 2005 ( Sloan, 2007). The proportion of institutions that believe that online education is important to their long-term strategy continues to increase, growing from 48.8% of all institutions in 2003 to 53.5% in 2004, 56% in 2005 and 58.4% in 2006 .Although almost all types and sizes of institutions show an increase in the importance of online education to their long term strategy institutions, two year colleges show the highest level of agreement, 67% in 2006 two year colleges show the highest level of agreement(67% in 2006) (The Sloan Consortium, 2006).
Most institutions (64%) agree with the statement “Students need more discipline to succeed in an online course than in a face to face course” as the most significant barrier in online education (The Sloan Consortium, 2007). This is greatest in private for profit institutions where 78.8% responded that students need more discipline to succeed in online courses. In community college this issue has been cited as a very important factor as well. This is an interesting finding, given that Community Colleges are among those with both the most positive views on online education and have the highest penetration rates and account for over one-half of all online enrollments for the last five years (The Sloan Consortium, 2007). Clearly, these schools do not view the need for increased student discipline as a strong inhibiting factor for online education.
Many students in higher education taking online courses are not distant but reside on campus. A recent study by South Dakota’s Board of Regents found that 42 percent of the students enrolled in its distance education courses lived on campus at the university that hosted the online course (SDBRR, 2005).
Vermeil and Berge (2000), indicate that a technologically-driven global economy in the 21st century contributes to the emergence of online education and the growth of electronic communication, particularly the use of the internet, in institutions of higher education.
The importance of learners’ attitudes toward the learning environment and the subject of study have been highlighted by researchers. Students’ attitudes, perceptions, and experiences will help faculty improve the design of online courses, and provide educators with information about recruitment and educational assessment (Lao & Gonzales, 2005). Students will increasingly encounter technology in many forms. To compete in a global economy, large scale technological training is required. Researchers have viewed these training programs as an imperative for our economic success (Ferleger & Mandle, 1990). In addition, researchers have identified the use of advanced technology in the classroom as an important tool for improving the outcome of the learning process.
Many students are faced with the challenge of using computer and communication technologies as the primary method of receiving instruction. However, little is known about the effort of colleges and universities to prepare the current labor force for a more technological society. In particular, the role of the comprehensive community college system in the development of a more technologically informed work force has not been studied intensively (Larreamendy-Joems & Leinhardt, 2006).
According to Sloan (2007), online enrollments are growing rapidly, but relatively few studies have analyzed the actual online student experience. An investigation is required to identify the perceptions and attitudes of community college students toward online-learning (Almala, 2006; Moskal & et. al, 2006).
Instructors spend time and energy developing online courses, with an assumption that students will take advantage of them and thereby benefit from utilizing these online resources. This assumption, however, may not be warranted, since there is little research that has examined how students actually use, perceive and benefit from online courses (Rosen & Petty, 1997). Moreover, some students may benefit more from online courses than others due to past internet experience, attitudes toward computers and learning style. An understanding of how students utilize and perceive online courses and how different factors influence their use and perceptions will provide valuable input to instructors. Based on this knowledge, instructors can justify their effort and design online courses to maximize the utility to all students, not just those who are particularly computer literate (Zembylas & Varsidas, 2007).
While online instruction is gaining popularity, it is not free from criticism.
Many educators and trainers do not support online instruction because they do not believe it actually solves difficult teaching and learning problems (Conlon, 1997), while others are concerned about the many barriers that hinder effective online teaching and learning. These concerns include the changing nature of technology, the complexity of networked systems, the lack of stability in online learning environments, and the limited understanding of how much students and instructors need to know to successfully participate (Brandt, 1996; Carr-Chellman, 2006). Online instruction also threatens to commercialize education, isolate students and faculty, and may reduce standards or even devalue university degrees (Gallick, 1998; Kraut et al., 1998).
Seventy seven percent of prospective college students in the United States would consider enrolling in a distance education program (Sloan Report, 2005). This report identified convenience and flexibility as driving consumer interest in online program. The study also found a great concern about online education. Students remain concerned about the quality of online education. When asked about this, 38% of those surveyed were unsure of the quality of online education relative to classroom instruction, and 29% believed online education is inferior to classroom instruction. Additionally, some students surveyed were worried that an online degree would not be as acceptable to potential employers as a more traditional-based degree (Tabatabaei, Schrottner, & Reichgelt, 2006). As this growing market becomes more competitive, it is more critical than ever for colleges to understand students’ motivations, attitudes, preferences and needs in order to better position themselves for success in the market (Zembylas & Varsidas, 2007) . Online colleges that are not tailoring their marketing messages and program mix to specific student needs will find themselves at a competitive disadvantage. Although the growth of online programs has been significant in recent years, the capabilities and efficacy of such programs have yet to be fully investigated (Bement, 2007).
Most effort in this area has been devoted to program development while examinations of program quality and effectiveness have been overlooked (Amala, 2006).
Research Questions
1. Do students in online courses perform differently from students who take face-to-face courses?
2. What factors influence the decision to enroll in online courses?
3. What factors influence student satisfaction in online classes?
4. What factors influence learning outcomes?
5. What are the perceived strengths and weaknesses of online education?
Null Hypotheses
H01. Online education is not conducive to favorable learning outcomes.
H02. There is no statistically significant relationship between labor force activity as measured by average weekly hours of work, and the decision to enroll in online courses.
H03. There is no statistically significant relationship between commuting time to school and the decision to enroll in online courses.
H04. There is no statistically significant relationship between student satisfaction with the educational experience and the instructor’s social presence.
H05. There is no statistical evidence that students feel isolated by the online experience.
H06. There is no statistical evidence that students find the online medium to be a poor way to communicate with the instructor.
H07. There is no statistical evidence that students find the online medium to be threatening.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to examine the role of social presence in online courses at a community college. Specifically, the study will examine the relationship of social presence in online courses to students’ perceived learning and to their satisfaction with the instructor.
Significance of the Study
The study will provide information that administrators and faculty may use to improve the design and delivery of online education. The study is significant because online education is the fastest growing segment of higher education. According to a survey conducted by Eduventures Inc. half of prospective college students are interested in earning a degree online (The Chronicle oh Higher Education, 2006). For example, during 2003-2004 online enrollments grew by 18.2 %. In comparison, the National Center for Education Statistics projections for total enrollment growth for all degree-granting postsecondary institutions during 2003-2004, ranged from a low of 0.87% to a high of 1.31% (The Sloan Consortium, 2005).
Gaining knowledge about the processes and outcomes of online instruction will help administrators, educators, and researchers make more informed decisions about future online course development and implementation. With little empirical knowledge about Internet-based education outcomes, the need for research in this area is not only timely, but also imperative (Moskal & et. al., 2006; Caudill, 2007).The online education experience is of recent vintage; therefore, additional information underscoring students’ satisfaction, problems encountered, and educational achievement under this new medium should be useful to administrators, faculty and future students (Tallent-Runnels et. al., 2006).
Assumptions
1. A sufficiently large amount of data will be collected to draw valid statistical inferences.
2. A valid instrument will be used to collect student responses.
Delimitations of the Study
The study will be conducted on students at Tomball College in Houston, Texas. The results of the study may be generalized to the population of students at Tomball College.
Because the study will be conducted on the students of a college in an area whose demographic characteristics are not representative of all areas of the country, the results may not be generalized to community college students in other areas.
Limitations of the Study
Students will be asked to volunteer for participation in the study. Their willingness to participate may have an impact on their attitudes toward online learning. The administration of the instrument by their instructors might have an influence on their responses.
Definition of Terms
Asynchronous: “Communication in which interaction between parties does not take place simultaneously” (e.g., email, mail, threaded posting) (Glossary, n.d.).
Collaborative Learning: A learning environment in which individual learners support and add to an emerging pool of knowledge of a group; emphasizes peer relationships as learners work together creating learning communities (Moore & Kearsley, 2005).
Computer-assisted instruction: Instruction delivered with the assistance of a computer. The student interacts with the computer and proceeds at his or her own speed. CAI software is commonly classified into these categories: drill-and-practice; tutorial; simulation; educational games; problem solving; applications (Glossary, Oregon Network Education).
Computer-mediated instruction: When computers are used as the media that delivers the course content from the instructor to the student (e.g., web-based courses, e-mail, chat rooms, and videoconferencing (Berge & Collins, 1995).
Correspondence Course: A distance learning environment where the course content and communications between the instructor and the student are provided using the U.S. postal system (Moore & Kearsley, 2005).
Distance Education: “the organizational framework and process of providing instruction at a distance. Distance education takes place when a teacher and student (s) are physically separated, and technology (i.e., voice, video, data, or print) are used to bridge the instructional gap” (Willis, 1994).
Distance Learning: “education or training offered to learners who are in a different location than the source or provider of instruction” (Porter, 1997).
Learner Autonomy: "Concept that learners have different capacities for making decisions regarding their own learning." Relates to the structure and interactive expectations of a distance education course (Moore & Kearsley, 1996).
Social Presence: “Social presence theory, a sub-area of communication theory, postulates that a critical factor of a communication medium is its “social presence,” which is defined as the “degree of salience of the other person in the (mediated) interaction and the consequent salience of the interpersonal relationships” (Short & Chritie, 1976). This is interpreted as the degree to which a person is perceived as “real” in mediated communication. Originally construed as an inherent feature of differing media, social presence may also be explored by examining a variety of issues which may contribute to the social climate of the classroom (Gunawardena, 1995). Consequently, it has been argued that social presence is a factor of both the medium and the communicators’ perceptions of presence in a sequence of interactions (Gunawardena, 1995). The construct of social presence in this construction appears to have subsumed that of teacher immediacy by taking into consideration the fact that some media, such as computer, interactive video, audiotape, alter learning environments.
Synchronous: “Communication in which interaction between participants is simultaneous time (e.g., videoconferencing, chat rooms) (Glossary, n.d.).
Telecourse: A strategy of distance learning that provides instruction to the students using television broadcasts or pre-recorded tapes. (Glossary, Oregon Network Education).
Web-Enhanced Instructions: the use of course management system tools (i.e., Blackboard, WebCT) to augment the traditional face–to-face classroom (Hayward & Lorna, 2004).
World Wide Web: “A system of Internet servers that support specially formulated documents. The documents are formatted in a markup language called HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) that supports links to other documents, as well as graphics, audio, and video files…Not all Internet servers are part of the World Wide Web.” (Webopedia, n.d.).
Arthur L. Petterway, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
ABSTRACT
A Mixed-Method Analysis of the Impact of High Stakes Testing on English Language Learners in Major Urban High Schools in Texas
May, 2007
Arthur L. Petterway: B.A. – Dillard University
M.Ed., Prairie View A&M University
Dissertation Chair: Dr. M. Paul Mehta
Ample research has been conducted on the intrinsic validity of standardized assessments, and on the factors affecting the assimilation and integration of English language learners (ELLs). The reliability of these assessments as a universal tool to measure student learning, and as a basis for determining school performance needed closer examination.
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of high-stakes testing on ELLs. This was shown in both the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of the study. Data obtained from Texas Education Agency (TEA) were used to determine whether there was a relationship between the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006. The qualitative aspect of this study explored what certified English as a Second Language( ESL) teachers, non-certified ESL teachers who teach ELLs, administrators, and district ESL personnel viewed as the impact that high stakes standardized assessments had on ELLs, ESL curriculum, and instruction in ESL classrooms.
This study determined the impact of high-stakes testing on ELLs using the explanatory design of mixed method analysis. Data of 173 major urban high schools were obtained from the Texas Education Agency (TEA). It was determined through the Pearson correlation computations using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) that there was a significant relationship between the percent of ELLs enrolled in a school and the percent of all students passing the 10th Grade TAKS tests in English Language Arts and Mathematics. In the qualitative portion of the study, the views and opinions of district ESL personnel were gathered. Principals, assistant principals, ESL and non-ESL teachers took part in an online, open-ended questionnaire; one-on-one interviews; and focus groups. The focus groups addressed the purposes of statewide testing; its intended consequences; problems and changes created by TAKS, and the recommendations to improve ESL curriculum and instruction.
The results of the study affirmed the expected outcome that a significant relationship existed between the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in both core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics. The regression analysis predicted that as the percentage of ELLs in a school increased, the performance on the statewide, high-stakes testing in terms of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests decreased. Respondents of the study considered TAKS as a tool to gauge knowledge in the different core areas. English language learners were expected to have at least average scores on TAKS. There was a difference in the expected and actual results; respondents observed dismal or failing performance of ELLS in the actual results in TAKS. This was evident by the high failure rate of ELLs in their respective schools. Higher dropout rate and lower graduation rate of ELLs were problems encountered due to TAKS. Respondents favored a different test for ELLs, possibly given at a later date after ELLs had studied in the country for at least several years. Respondents believed that interventions were needed to help ELLs perform better. Both the school and the home, together with the community, have to be involved in preparing ELLs for their present and future roles in the American society.
Results of this study may provide valuable data to district and school administrators to develop strategies that will improve the performance of ELLs on the statewide, high-stakes testing and to develop assessments that truly measure learning without the nullifying effect of linguistic and cultural bias. The study may also help to enhance the reliability of standardized assessments as a tool to determine accountability for student performance.
Arthur L. Petterway, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
For years, the English language learners (ELLs) have been subjected to educational systems that did not expect them to rise to the same standards as their native English-speaking peers (Winograd, 2002). Although that it can take several years to acquire the second language skills needed to be successful in school (Collier, 1989), too often English language learners born in the U.S. are still in English as a second language (ESL) classes and far behind their grade level peers in the content areas by the time they reach high school (Freeman & Freeman, 2002).
One factor that should be considered in this failure to reach grade level requirements is that language may constitute an element of self-identity. It is possible that minority groups are insistent on retaining their ethnic language as their “first.” English proficiency then would be a mere elective instead of an indispensable learning tool. If this is the case, schools are being held accountable for the consequences of a socio-cultural phenomenon that is beyond their limited powers to address.
Public schools are under close scrutiny. Since they are supported by public funds, there is an increasing demand for accountability. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) now requires all students to be accounted for in any state’s assessment system, although that has not always been the case (Abedi, 2004). School districts are now required to clearly demonstrate they deserve, and effectively utilize public funding. In itself, this is not a disturbing trend. Institutions that are wholly or partly supported by public funds should be accountable. This is essentially a consequence of democracy. A government that is created by, and for the people, is so unlike an aristocracy that is not required to serve a constituency beyond the guarantee of protection from marauders or invading armies. The U.S. system of government empowers the state to undertake measures that guarantee the common good. This goes beyond the guarantee of physical safety, since the term “common good” has a wider application, and implies a calculated sensitivity to every citizen’s pursuit of happiness. While education is not categorized as a fundamental right, it is perceived as primary among a bundle of values essential for every person’s quest for self-fulfillment and happiness. This explains why there is little argument about whether the government should be involved in education at all, and whether this is an endeavor better left to the private sector (Abedi, 2004).
The government’s involvement in education opens a wide avenue for the analysis and evaluation of results. In today’s world, it is not enough that public schools have adequate facilities, although this constitutes one level of analysis. It is important that schools are safe and teachers are qualified, although in the hierarchy of priorities considered for evaluating schools, these outcomes are not standard. Schools are judged principally based on the amount of learning that takes place in their classrooms. As an internal act, the evidence of learning is analyzed from scores students obtain on standardized assessments.
Institutions are now facing an ever-increasing demand for accountability. There is pressure from every conceivable corner to make public schools accountable to their stakeholders. This means that it is not enough for students to learn in school; it is equally important that learning should occur in ways that are measurable. If students are unable to demonstrate what they have learned, it is presumed that no learning took place at all. The time when public schools are allowed to operate without proven success is over. It is appropriate to inquire about the valid manifestations of success and learning, and how they may actually be measured. Cultural construct renders school rankings flawed to a certain extent since they become less accurate as a measure of the faculty and administration’s performance. Instead, they become unintended indicators of the ethnicity of the students to which schools cater (Abedi, 2004).
Statement of the Problem
High stakes assessment systems are meant to bring attention to the needs of ELLs, who are most at risk of not reaching the educational goals set for them (Anderson, 2004). But what results do statewide accountability tests really produce for ELLs (Anderson, 2004)? Assessment systems usually produce both positive and negative consequences (Anderson, 2004). The positive and negative consequences of assessments are what is called ‘washback’ (Alderson & Wall, 1993), or how the results of an assessment affect the stakeholders taking the test (Anderson, 2004).
While quantifiable washback effects such as increased dropout rates or increased referral to Special Education have been researched, assessment washback is more complicated than numbers alone can tell (Anderson, 2004). Students who qualify for Special Education may be allowed to take alternative assessments in lieu of the state assessments such as the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS). It is interesting to note that while the numbers of African-American and Hispanic students are over-represented in Special Education, about eight to nine percent of ELLs are identified as receiving Special Education services in the United States (D’Emilio, 2003; Zehler, Fleischman, Hopstock, Pendzick, & Stepherson, 2003). While these assessments are not on grade level, schools are expected to demonstrate that, based on students’ scores on alternative assessments, improvement in academic performance is taking place.
Data are needed that tell us more about the full range of intended and unintended consequences occurring in schools today (Anderson, 2004). Since school rankings affect student and faculty morale, they serve more as a force for the preservation of the status quo than a force for improvement in student performance. A school that works hard to ensure that learning occurs, and that its students progress academically, but which has a large proportion of ELLs, will risk being ranked as underperforming because the measure used to evaluate its performance is blind to this important demographic reality.
One way to get at these data is by talking with the stakeholders at the schools. Educators are the ones who deal directly with the impact of high stakes assessments, but are overlooked in research. While teachers’ opinions are often cited as anecdotal evidence that a problem exists, their expert observations often go unrecorded in any systematic way (Anderson, 2004).
Standardized assessments are a measure for holding schools accountable for student learning. At the present time, schools in Texas are ranked Exemplary, Recognized, Acceptable or Underperforming, depending on the performance of their students in the Texas Assessment of Knowledge Skills (TAKS). This produces a vicious cycle since exemplary schools attract the best students who may leave underperforming schools to seek what is perceived to be a higher quality of instruction in higher ranked schools. These labels tend to have a self-fulfilling effect, or at least they make it difficult for underperforming schools to achieve higher performance scores on standardized tests, since they face the additional burden of surmounting language barriers and a history of low performance.
Related to this concern is the prevailing system of voluntary segregation in most zones and districts. Some schools have either a predominant population of White, Hispanic, or African-American students. Each of these student groups is given the same tests, and yet they have varying degrees of proficiency in the language in which the assessments are given. It begs to be asked whether these assessments, in fact, measure learning and whether they are linguistically and culturally neutral. The implication is that these students will be able to answer the test questions even if they do not have equal exposure to cultural references that may frame some of the test questions.
This study is intended to explore what educators perceive as the consequences of statewide assessment for ELLs and what they observe as actually occurring (Anderson, 2004).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of high-stakes testing on ELLs. This was shown in both the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of the study. Data obtained from TEA were used to determine whether there is a relationship between the percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th Grade TAKS tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006. To support the quantitative aspect, this study explored what certified ESL teachers, non-certified ESL teachers who teach ELLs, administrators, and district ESL personnel viewed as the impact that high stakes standardized assessments have on ELLs, ESL curriculum and instruction, and what they observed as actually occurring.
Research Questions
Quantitative
Is there a relationship between the percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006?
Hypotheses
H01: There is no statistically significant relationship between the
percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in English Language Arts given in 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006?
H02: There is no statistically significant relationship between the
percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006?
Qualitative
The major question addressed by this study was: What are the anticipated and observed consequences of the statewide testing, specifically TAKS, on ESL curriculum and instruction as viewed by certified ESL teachers, non-certified ESL teachers who teach ELLs, school administrators, and district ESL personnel?
This major question was explored using the following probes:
1. Why is TAKS given as a statewide test?
2. What are the intended consequences of this statewide testing? (Or what has happened because of TAKS?)
3. What problems have occurred related to or because of TAKS?
4. What changes were caused by this statewide testing?
5. What are your recommendations to improve this statewide testing?
6. What needs to be done for the ESL students to improve their performance in general and specifically for this statewide test?
Description of the Research Design
The study analyzed the issues and challenges faced by ELLs and the public schools that serve them. Quantitative data for this research were gathered from the Texas Education Agency (TEA) regarding the percentage of ELLs and the performance of 10th grade students from the major urban high schools in Texas on the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) tests in English Language Arts and Mathematics for 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006. Qualitative data were derived from one-on-one and focus group interviews and an online questionnaire focusing on respondents’ views and opinions about the various ways that standardized assessments impact ELLs.
Assumptions
Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) stated that an assumption is anything taken for granted rather than tested or checked. This study is no different and the following assumptions were made: (a) that the first language of the ELLs is Spanish and they have varying degrees of fluency in the English language; (b) that the ESL curriculum is appropriate for the mastery of the TAKS test for the ELLs; (c) that the online open-ended qualitative questionnaire will be completed by the respondents on time; and (d) that the respondents in the focus groups will truthfully express their views and opinions regarding issues or concerns brought to the group.
Limitations of the Study
Limitations of the study included several factors: mainly the qualitative questionnaire and the manner in which respondents gave their responses. The questionnaire may have vague questions open to more than one interpretation. The pilot study helped in streamlining the questionnaire to remove or modify such vague issues or concerns. Another limitation may have been the manner in which the respondents answered the question. For one reason or another, they may not have truthfully answered some of the questions. The respondents may or may not have completed the questionnaire due to no ready access to a computer or they just did not want to complete the questionnaire. These non-respondents became part of the mortality factor involved in the study. Responses to the open-ended questions became difficult to classify under a certain category. This was facilitated through the Non-Numerical, Unstructured Data, Indexing Searching & Theorizing Vivo-“Nudist Alive” (NVivo) software system (Version 7.0) and by the focus group interviews where the respondents helped determine the category of such responses.
A factor that may have been encountered in the quantitative dimension of the study was the lack of intended data for the study. Diligent efforts were made to gather data from available sources.
Delimitations of the Study
The questions for the online qualitative questionnaire may have been a delimitation of the study. The pilot study contributed to the improvement of the qualitative tool. Another delimitation may have been the choice of participants, especially in the focus groups. The “snowball technique” addressed this issue. Better interaction happened with added ‘quality’ members to the focus groups.
Qualitative data are available and the inclusion of the quantitative aspect of the study provided a challenge and an opportunity to determine if certain factors of the study have any impact on the ELLs.
Definition of Terms
Content Standards are broad descriptions of the knowledge, skills, and understandings that schools should teach and students should acquire in a particular subject area (McLaughlin & Shepard, 1995).
English Language Learners (ELLs) is the preferred term to describe a student whose native language is other than English (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994). These students require instructional modifications, and eventually take the TAKS after two years of enrollment in the school districts.
High Stakes Assessment is an assessment in which student promotion (i.e., high school graduation) can be denied if the scores do not reflect competence (NCBE, 1997); an assessment in which “students, teachers, administrators, and entire school systems must account for student performance” (Loschert, 2000, p. 1).
Limited English Proficient (LEP) refers to a student with a language background other than English, and whose proficiency in English is such that the probability of academic success in an English-only classroom is below that of an academically successful peer with an English-language background (CCSSO, 1992).
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 (PL – 107 – 110). It is the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA).
Opportunity-to-learn (OTL) Standard defines the level and availability of programs, staff and other resources sufficient to enable all students to meet challenging content and performance standards (McLaughlin & Shepard, 1995).
Performance Standards are concrete examples and explicit definitions of what students have to know and be able to do to demonstrate that such students are proficient in the skills and knowledge framed by the content standards (McLaughlin & Shepard, 1995).
Standardized Assessments include the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) and the State and Locally-Developed Alternative Assessment (SLDAA) for students who are exempted from the TAKS. A standardized assessment is a measurement of what students know and can do (McLaughlin & Shepard, 1995).
Standards-based Reform requires setting standards of performance in academic subject areas as a means of improving the substance of school curricula and increasing the motivation and effort of students, teachers, and school systems and thereby improving student achievement (McLaughlin & Shepard, 1995).
Washback shows how the results of an assessment affect the stakeholders taking the test (Alderson & Wall, 1993).
Significance of the Study
Expected outcome of this study may possibly provide additional valuable data for writers or researchers in regard to biases in standardized assessments that may encourage school districts to develop assessments that truly measure learning without the nullifying effect of linguistic and cultural bias. Additionally, this study enhances the reliability of standardized assessments as a tool in determining accountability where the performance of English language learners is concerned.
Organization of the Study
Chapter I identifies the problem this study addresses: the impact of high stakes assessments on the curriculum and instruction of English language learners. It includes the hypotheses and research questions of the present study. Included are the definitions of terms valuable to the study.
Chapter II includes the review of literature about the essential conditions and factors regarding the NCLB Act, the AYP implications for concerned schools, high-stakes, statewide assessments and the implications and challenges they present to the preparation and education of ELLs. The information reveals the difficulties that English language learners face when taking these high stakes assessments, the possible positive and negative consequences and possible “washback” related to the assessments.
A mixed-method study is identified and expounded in Chapter III. Quantitative data for this research were gathered from the Texas Education Agency regarding the percentage of ELLs and the performance of major urban high schools in Texas in the statewide test (Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills) for 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006. Qualitative data were derived from an online, open-ended questionnaire and interviews that focused on the respondents’ views and opinions about the varied ways standardized assessments impact English language learners.
Results of the study are presented in detail in Chapter IV. Quantitative results include the available data collected from Texas Education Agency. Results of computations employing the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) statistical package, (Version 14.0) are shown in tabular presentations and explanations regarding the relationship among the variables are included. Qualitative results include the participants’ views and opinions on the impact of high stakes testing on English language learners and the information collected from the online, open-ended questionnaire, individual and focus group interviews.
Major findings of the study are discussed in Chapter V. Impact of high stakes standardized assessments on English language learners are also summarized. Other relevant factors that influenced this study are presented, as well as recommendations for future research.
Arthur L. Petterway, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Key issues and concerns about the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 and the Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) are major parts of the review of related literature. Included are the principles and accountability involved in high-stakes testing and the descriptions and accommodations given to the ultimate beneficiary of the efforts exerted by the federal and state policymakers, the school and district administrators – the learners, specifically, the English language learners who strive to be better citizens of this country. Short description of related studies on statewide testing and English language learners (ELLs) are given to show their tie-in with this study.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
Historical Perspective
The NCLB Act of 2001 (PL – 107 -110), is the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). The ESEA was first passed in 1965 with the goal of improving the U. S. educational system by providing better education for students in poverty through an increase in services to them. The ESEA provided federal funds for schools but did not require accountability in the use of those funds. In 2003, the Center of Educational Policy clarified why accountability was not part of ESEA in 1965: “At that time, the federal role in education was marginal, most state education agencies had very limited authority and capabilities, and local people were extremely wary that more federal aid would bring federal control” (p.iv).
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) was initiated as a federal testing program at about the same time when ESEA came into existence. NAEP was tasked to report how the nation’s students were performing on selected items at the three grade levels --- 4th, 8th and 12th. Brennan (2004) reported that there were fears that the NAEP might become a “high-stakes federal testing program” found in some European countries. He explained that, “to help preclude that possibility, it was written into law that NAEP could not report scores for individual students” (p.2). The NAEP evolved through the 1980s and early 1990s from a reporting of item scores to test scores and then, on a trial basis, to a reporting of scores that addressed achievement levels (below basic, basic, proficient, and advanced). It is currently used to confirm state NCLB testing results which, according to Brennan, “is the de facto elevation of NAEP to a federally-mandated high-stakes testing program” (p.9).
Through the NCLB Act, policymakers in Washington seek to raise academic achievement in the nation by requiring schools to assess all students on specified content areas and report their progress toward proficiency. Focus of NCLB is on core academic subjects as defined in the law: “The term ‘core academic subjects’ means English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign language, civics, and government, economics, arts, history, and geography” (U.S. Department of Education, 2002).
The premise of NCLB is that our nation’s schools are failing. Thus, the purpose of NCLB is raising the achievement of all students and eliminating the achievement gap among students differentiated by race, ethnicity, poverty, disability, and English proficiency. Since this Act redefines the federal role in education policy that has traditionally been a state responsibility, it merits the attention of educators, parents and citizens. Because the NCLB Act has an impact on the teaching and the learning of the core content areas, including languages, language educators need to be informed about it.
If a roomful of educators were asked which word or phrase best sums up No Child Left Behind (NCLB), many would say accountability. Others might propose student achievement, proficiency or raised expectations. But perhaps the most accurate word to encapsulate the United States’ most ambitious federal education law – which proposes to close achievement gaps and aims for 100% student proficiency by 2014 - is testing. Certainly, the focus on holding schools accountable for student achievement on standardized tests sets NCLB apart from previous versions of the law. (Guilfoyle, 2006).
Description of the Key Factors
There are four key elements in the NCLB Act (Rosenbusch, 2005):
(1) Accountability. States are required to establish a definition of student proficiency in the core academic subjects of Reading/Language Arts, Mathematics and Science through prescribed indicators and set a timetable to bring all students in all subgroups up to the defined levels of proficiency by 2013-2014. The school must report to parents their child’s progress in each targeted academic subject annually, and the state is required to report the results of students’ performance on the annual tests for every public school to parents and the community. Schools that fail to meet state-defined AYP toward their defined goals for two years are identified as needing improvement. Schools that have not met AYP after four years are subject to restructuring or reconstitution.
(2) Testing. States must develop and administer annual tests that define the proficiency that all students are expected to reach in Reading/Language Arts, Mathematics, and Science. States must include a sample of students in fourth and eighth grades in a biennial NAEP in Mathematics and Reading to verify state assessments.
NCLB requires that by School Year (SY) 2005-2006, each state must measure every child’s progress in Reading and Mathematics in each of grades 3 through 8 and at least once during grades 10 through 12. In the meantime, each state must meet the requirements of the previous law reauthorizing ESEA (the Improving America’s Schools act of 1994) for assessments in Reading and Mathematics at three grade spans (3-5; 6-9; and 10-12). By SY 2007-2008, states must have in place Science assessments to be administered at least once during grades 3-5; grades 6-9; and grades 10-12. States must ensure that districts administer a test of English proficiency to measure oral language, Reading and Writing skills in English to all limited English proficient students, as of SY 2002-2003. Students may still undergo state assessments in other subject areas (i.e., History, Geography, and Writing skills), if and when the state requires it. NCLB requires assessments only in the areas of Reading/Language Arts, Mathematics, and Science.
(3) Teacher Quality. Public elementary and secondary school teachers who teach core content areas are required to be “highly qualified,” which is defined as having full state certification (may be attained through alternate routes specified by the state), holding a bachelor’s degree, and having demonstrated subject matter competency as determined by the state under NCLB guidelines. States are required to develop a plan by the end of 2005-2006 to ensure that every teacher is highly qualified to teach in his or her core content area.
(4) Scientifically-Based Research. The NCLB Act requires that all educational decisions be informed by scientifically-based research as defined in the legislation. The NCLB Act funds for Reading First Grants, for example, are to be used for methods of reading instruction backed by scientifically-based research.
Expectations for Parents Due to NCLB (from Collegeboard.com)
(1) New standards for students will require that beginning 2005, students in grades 3 through 8 must be tested in Mathematics and English to ensure they are meeting state standards. Students in Grades 10 through 12 will be tested at least once. By 2007, states will begin testing students in Science as well. Results of the yearly tests will be known to parents. NCLB requires that school districts provide parents with an annual “report card” that shows how well students in each school performed. The information is broken down by race, ethnicity, gender, disability status, and other categories so that parents will know how well each school is doing in educating minority students or those with disabilities.
(2) By the end of SY 2005-2006, teachers must be “highly qualified” in the subjects they teach. States will determine what skills teachers must have to be “highly qualified”, but the requirements could include a degree in the subject they teach or extra training. States must provide annual report cards about teacher certifications, including the percentage of classrooms in the state not taught by highly qualified teachers. Principals must also maintain information about whether or not their school’s teachers meet the requirements.
(3) Each year, schools must increase the number of students who achieve state standards. At the end of 12 years, all students should be able to pass the tests. Schools that fail to achieve this progress will be targeted for improvements that could include increased funding or staff and curriculum changes.
(4) NCLB requires school districts to notify parents if the child’s school has been identified as needing improvement as a result of failing to increase the number of students meeting state standards.
(5) About half of all public schools receive funding to help students from low-income families. If such a school is targeted for improvement and fails after two years, parents can choose to transfer their child to another school or enroll in free tutoring. Parents have this choice for as long as the school fails to adequately perform.
Response to NCLB (Rosenbusch, 2005)
NCLB has engendered controversy that is centered in part on the increased role of the federal government in educational policy. A majority of Americans believe that decisions about what is taught in public schools should be made at the local level by the school board (61%), rather than at the state level (22%) or the federal level (15%) (Rose & Gallup, 2003). Results of a 2004 survey indicate that they disagree with “the major strategies NCLB uses to determine whether a school is or is not in need of improvement” (Rose & Gallup, 2004, p.2). For example, 83% of those surveyed believe that testing only in English and Mathematics will not yield a fair picture of the school, 73% say it is not possible to judge a student’s proficiency in English and Mathematics on a single test, and 81% are concerned that basing decisions about school on students’ performance in English and Mathematics will mean less emphasis on art, music, history and other subjects.
In the U.S. Department of Education, there is support for high standards and high expectations for every child, but the NCLB focus on standardized testing is resulting in a narrowing of the curriculum and a “sorting of students” (Marshak, 2003, p.229) and “could halt the development of truly significant improvements in teaching and learning” (Lewis, 2002, p.179). The National Education Association supports the NCLB Act in its goal but views it as an obstacle to improving public education because of its focus on “punishment rather than assistance”, and “mandates rather than support for effective programs” (National Education Association, n.d.).
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP)
Purpose and Support to NCLB
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB; Public Law No. 107-110, 115 Stat. 1425, 2002), the most recent reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Act of 1965, holds states using federal funds accountable for student academic achievement. States are required to develop a set of high-quality, yearly student assessments that include, at a minimum, assessments in Reading/Language Arts, Mathematics and Science. Each year, they must report student progress in terms of percentage of students scoring at the “proficient” level or higher. This reporting is referred to as adequate yearly progress (AYP). A state’s definition of AYP should also include high school graduation rates and an additional indicator for middle schools to reach the “proficient” level or higher, which must be no more than 12 years after the start date of the 2001 – 2002 school year, provided that the first increase occurs within the first 2 years (Abedi, 2004).
AYP will be reported for schools, school districts, and the state for all students. In addition, AYP must be reported for the following subgroup categories of students: (a) economically disadvantaged students, (b) students from major racial and ethnic groups, (c) students with disabilities, and (d) students with limited English proficiency (LEP). According to the educational statistics for 2000 – 2001 school year, the total number of students labeled as LEP in the nation’s public schools is more than 4.5 million or 9.6% of total enrollment; (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2002).
States are continuing to find new ways to calculate AYP under the NCLB, in order to increase the number of schools and districts that meet the student achievement targets set by law. Over the past few years, the U.S. Department of Education (ED) has allowed states to make many changes in the way they determine AYP, including the following: (1) confidence intervals, which make allowances for natural fluctuations in test scores and essentially bolster a school’s or subgroup’s percentage of students scoring at proficient levels; (2) performance indices that allow schools to get “partial credit” for the performance of students below the proficient level; (3) retesting, which allows students to retake a different version of the same test and permits schools to use a student’s best score to count toward AYP, and (4) increased minimum subgroup sizes, which mean that in many schools, subgroups do not get counted for AYP purposes. The changes have the effect of making it easier for the schools to make AYP, early indications are that the number of schools not making AYP has leveled off, despite predictions that this number would increase as proficiency targets rose (Olson, 2005).
Changes and Updates
In NCLB’s original conception, determining AYP for a subgroup of students, a school, or a district was already fairly complicated. States had to establish, for every year between 2003 and 2014, a set of ever-increasing state targets in terms of the percentage of students scoring at the proficient level or above on annual tests, with a final goal of 100% proficiency in 2014. If at least 95% of the students in each subgroup are tested, and if all students and subgroups meet the state proficiency targets, the school or district makes AYP. The school has to meet targets for an additional academic indicator, such as the graduation or attendance rate. The law has a “safe harbor” provision: if a school or subgroup fails to meet the state targets, it could still make AYP if it reduces the number of students who are not proficient from the previous year by 10%, and meets its additional academic indicator.
Some other state changes that have been approved are briefly summarized below (Center on Education Policy, 2005):
Minimum subgroup size. To make AYP, schools and districts must meet achievement targets for each significant subgroup of students enrolled, such as African-American students, low-income students, or students with disabilities. Higher minimum subgroup sizes mean that in many schools, subgroups do not get counted for AYP purposes.
Thirteen states increased their minimum subgroup sizes in 2004; ten more did so in 2005. The trend is away from a single minimum size and toward larger subgroup sizes, different subgroup sizes for different subgroups and/or purpose, and the use of formulas for determining subgroup sizes. Georgia is one state that uses a formula approach. Its subgroup size varies according to the size of the school; the minimum size is either 40 students or 10% of a school’s student population, whichever is greater, with a cap of 75 students.
Participation averaging. NCLB requires 95% of the students in every school and every subgroup within a school to take each subject test required by the Act. If this test participation requirement is not met, the school cannot make AYP even if its test scores meet state targets. In March 2004, the Department relaxed this requirement, allowing states to average their participation rates over two or three years, so that a 94% participation rate one year could be balanced by a 96% participation rate the following or previous year. In 2005, six states changed their accountability plans to incorporate this new policy, in addition to the 32 that did so last year.
English language learners. Initially the U.S. Department of Education (ED) required all English language learners to be tested with the same grade-level tests as other students. In response to state and local criticism, the Department revised its policy in February 2004 to allow states to exempt immigrant students who are in their first year of enrollment in a U.S. school for less than one year from taking the regular state English Language Arts tests. These students still have to take an English language proficiency test and a Mathematics test, but the results need not count toward AYP. When calculating AYP for the subgroup of English language learners, states can also count the progress of former English language learners for two years after they reach English proficiency. Six more states adopted these changes in 2005, in addition to the 36 states that did so in 2004.
Extra time is given for students with disabilities and English language learners to graduate. In 2005, eight states received approval from ED to count students with disabilities and/or English language learners as graduating on time even if they need extra years of high school. Seven states received permission to do this in 2004. For students with disabilities, their individualized education plans would need to call for extra years of high school beyond age 18. English language learners can be counted as graduating on time if it takes five years, or as determined on a case-to-case basis (Center on Education Policy, 2005).
Identifying districts for improvement. In 2005, ED approved amendments requested by 13 states to identify a district as being in need of improvement only when it does not make AYP in the same subject and across all three grade spans (elementary, middle and high school) for two consecutive years. In 2004, 18 states made this change. California attempted to have ED accept a relatively lenient method that exempted districts where low-income students reached a certain level on state tests. ED rejected that method, and California settled on the grade span approach instead (Davis & Sack, 2005).
Annual measurable objectives. Eleven states changed their annual score targets in 2005; four states did so in 2004. For example, Florida was allowed to change its schedule of annual measurable objectives so that targets would increase in smaller increments annually, rather than in large increments every three years (Olson, 2005); Virginia did so as well. Several other states, including Alabama, Alaska, New Mexico, and North Carolina, changed their annual targets because they were introducing new assessments.
NCLB is a demanding law. The achievement goals are ambitious, and the burden on states and districts of declaring schools in need of improvement and then imposing sanctions on them is high. To try to meet these demands, states have a strong incentive to keep the numbers of schools and districts not making AYP as low as possible. Unable to change the fundamental requirements written into the law, states are using administrative methods to lessen the numbers of schools and districts not making the AYP – confidence intervals, indexing, and other techniques.
Education Secretary Margaret Spellings has been more flexible than her predecessor in policies regarding students with disabilities, and in granting special exemptions to some districts in the areas of school choice and supplemental educational services (tutoring). Secretary Spellings has decided to allow the Chicago school district to provide tutoring despite the fact that the district has been identified for improvement (Gewertz, 2005). This exemption was then extended to New York City, Los Angeles, Boston, Memphis, Anchorage, and Dayton. This was a regulatory change.
Secretary Spellings went further with four districts in Virginia by suspending a key element of the law itself, invoking a clause in NCLB that allows the Secretary of Education to do so. Her action exempted these districts from the law’s requirement that they provide school choice before tutoring (Olson, 2005). Secretary Spelling’s letter to Virginia officials indicates that this is a pilot program intended to raise the numbers of students receiving supplemental educational services (Spellings, 2005). In addition, districts in the five states most affected by Hurricane Katrina were allowed to postpone, for one year, the consequences that follow when a school is in need of improvement, such as tutoring, restructuring, and corrective action (Olson & Davis, 2005).
ED’s willingness to make adjustments based on state and local experience is commendable. But on the downside, parents in many states would now find it difficult to understand what it means when a school does or does not make AYP, and what criteria were used to determine this success or failure. For example, parents in Pennsylvania may see a report card that indicates that their child’s elementary school has made AYP, but might wonder whether the school is improving or whether it simply made AYP as the result of what might be seen as a new “loophole” in the law. The parents probably would not understand that the school may have made AYP through the use of a 95% confidence interval, safe harbor with a 75% confidence interval, or the Pennsylvania Performance Index as a second safe harbor. In other states, parents of English language learners, students with disabilities, or other subgroups may not realize that raising the minimum subgroup sizes means that their children no longer count for AYP purposes at the school level. They might not realize that the use of confidence intervals allows for considerable leeway in a subgroup’s test scores not available to larger groups of students, and that this is occurring despite the assertion that improving achievement for subgroups is a major focus of the law.
Other drawbacks to the increasing complexity may contribute in the difficulty of discerning clear trends in the number of schools and districts not making AYP, because the rules governing AYP keep changing every year. Amid these changes, it is impossible to determine whether an increase in the number of schools making AYP within a state is due to better teaching and learning or NCLB rule changes. The constant rule changes, particularly the use of large confidence intervals and ever-increasing minimum subgroup sizes, may raise questions about whether the law is being watered down so much that it shortchanges the very groups of disadvantaged children that it aims to help. Public support may wither if the implementation of the law is perceived as deceptive or confusing.
As states continue to learn from one another about the new types of flexibility that ED is allowing, and as state achievement targets continue to rise until 2014, changes in AYP policies are likely to occur at a more rapid pace, at the expense of the public’s ability to understand these changes. More transparency is needed at both the state and federal levels. States must fully and clearly explain their rationales for requesting changes to accountability plans. Once changes are approved by ED, they should be explained in such a way that the public understand how AYP is determined.
At the federal level, ED should more systematically and promptly publicize its decisions about what types of changes to state accountability plans are and are not acceptable, and why. The current process of granting changes does not help state officials learn from other states’ experiences, nor does it help them understand how ED is interpreting the intent of the law.
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) and Limited English Proficient (LEP) Students
Definition of English Language Learners (ELLs) and LEP
Limited English Proficient (LEP) students are students who lack sufficient English skills to participate in a regular education, all-English speaking classroom. English Language Learner (ELL), according to Rivera and Stansfield (1998), is a positive way to refer to any LEP student in English.
NAEP does not provide a definition of the LEP population; instead it presents criteria for the inclusion of LEP students. NAEP inclusion criteria indicate that: A student who is identified on the Administration Schedule as LEP and who is a native speaker of a language other than English should be included in the NAEP assessment unless: (a) the student has received Reading or Mathematics instruction primarily in English for less than 3 school years including the current year , and (b) the student cannot demonstrate his or her knowledge of Reading or Mathematics in English even with an accommodation permitted by NAEP (NCES, 2001).
Due to the importance of LEP subgroups in NCLB accountability and reporting, NCLB provides an operational definition of LEP (NCLB, 2002). According to this definition: The term ‘limited English proficient’, when used with respect to an individual, means an individual (a) who is aged 3 through 21; (b) who is enrolled or preparing to enroll in an elementary school or secondary school; (c) who was not born in the United States or whose native language is a language other than English; who is a Native American or Alaska Native, or native resident of the outlying areas; and who comes from an environment where a language other than English has had a significant impact on the individual’s level of English language proficiency; or who is migratory, whose native language is a language other than English, and who comes from an environment where a language other than English is dominant; and (d) whose difficulties in speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language may be sufficient to deny the individual the ability to meet the State’s proficient level of achievement on State assessments described in section 111(b)(3); the ability to successfully achieve in classrooms where the language of instruction is English; or the opportunity to participate fully in society.
The term “English language learner” (ELL) is a recent designation for students whose first language is not English. This group includes students who are just beginning to learn English as well as those who have already developed considerable proficiency. The term reflects a positive focus on what these students are accomplishing – mastering another language- and is preferred by some researchers to the term “limited English proficient” (LEP), the designation used in federal and state education legislation and most national and state data collection efforts (August & Hakuta, 1997; LaCelle-Peterson & Rivera, 1994).
The ELL population is highly diverse, and any attempt to describe the group as a whole, as with any diverse group of people, is bound to result in inaccurate generalizations. While this group of students shares one important feature - the need to increase their proficiency in English - they differ in many other important respects. ELLs are a diverse cross-section of the public school student population. The primary language, cultural background, socio-economic status, family history, length of time in the United States, mobility, prior school experiences, or educational goals of any student in this group can distinguish him or her from any other ELLs.
ELLs represent a rapidly growing, culturally and linguistically diverse student population in the United States. In 2000-2001, LEP students comprised nearly 4.6 million public high school students. The majority were Spanish speakers (79.0%), followed by Vietnamese (2.0%), Hmong (1.6%), Cantonese (1.0%), and Korean (1.0%). Since the 1990-1991 school year, the limited English proficient population has grown approximately 105%, while the overall school population has increased by only 12%.
English learners matriculate in schools throughout the nation, but most frequently in large urban school districts in the Sun Belt states, in industrial states in the Northeast, and around the Great Lakes. This trend is changing as immigrants move to more affordable suburban and rural areas and to areas where language-minority families are relative newcomers, such as the Midwest. More than half (56.1%) reside in four states alone: California (32.9%), Texas (12.4%), Florida (5.6%) and New York (5.2%) (Kindler, 2002). English learners represent one in four K – 12 students in California schools (California Department of Education, 2000).
This population includes recent immigrants as well as children born in the United States. In the 2000-2001 school year, more than 44% of all LEP students were enrolled in Pre-K through Grade 3; about 35% were enrolled in Grades 4 – 8; and only 19% were enrolled at the high school level (Kindler, 2002). Many LEP students attend schools where most of their peers live in poverty. There are numerous differences among English learners; for example, Spanish-speaking families tend to have lower parental educational attainment and family incomes than Asian-or Pacific-language families (August & Hakuta, 1997).
Many criteria are used across the nation for identification of ELLs. Among the most commonly used criteria are Home Language Survey results and scores from English proficiency tests. There are reasons to believe that the Home Language Survey results may not be valid because of parents’ concern over equity in education for their children, parents’ citizenship issues, and communication problems (Abedi, 2004b). Similarly, there are concerns about the validity of current English proficiency tests, such as the Language Assessment Scales and other commonly used assessments (Zehler, Hopstock, Fleischman & Greniuk, 1994). Criterion-related validity coefficients, or the correlation between English proficiency tests and other existing valid measure of English proficiency, are not strong, explaining less than 5% of the common variance (Abedi, 2003). Finally, in terms of content and construct validity, there is little evidence that the contents of the existing English proficiency tests align sufficiently with commonly accepted English language proficiency standards, such as standards by Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (Bailey & Butler, 2003).
Issues and Other Considerations of LEP
Disaggregated progress reports by subgroups mandated by the NCLB legislation will monitor the nation’s goal of having “no child left behind.” However, there are major issues in this disaggregated reporting among different subgroup categories (students who are economically disadvantaged, students from major racial and ethnic groups, students with disabilities, and LEP students). NCLB requirement for subgroup reporting may give the impression that students in the subgroup categories start the achievement race at about the same level and can progress with other students at about the same rate. This might be an overly optimistic view of the situation of less advantaged learners. By focusing this discussion on the consequences for schools enrolling LEP students, we see how putting into practice the policy may produce invalid assessment and unreliable reporting while exacerbating the burdens of current educators. Following is a discussion of some challenges in AYP measurement and reporting for LEP students.
Results of research on the assessment of LEP students suggest a strong confounding of language and performance. LEP students exhibit substantially lower performance than non-LEP students in subject areas high in language demand. Studies suggest that the large performance gap between LEP and non-LEP may not be due mainly to lack of content knowledge. LEP students may possess the content knowledge but may not be at the level of English language proficiency necessary to understand the linguistic structure of assessment tools. Strong confusion of language factors and content-based knowledge makes assessment and accountability complex for LEP students and, very likely, students in other targeted groups.
Because of the strong effect of language factors on the instruction and assessment of LEP students, they lag far behind native English speakers. This leads to huge initial differences. LEP students start with substantially lower baseline scores. More important, unless LEP students’ English language proficiency is improved to the level of native English speakers- which is not an easy task- they will not be able to move at the same rate on the Adequate Yearly Progress line as do native English speakers.
NCLB cannot have much of an effect on the initial performance differences between LEP and non-LEP students. A more sensible question here is whether or not NCLB can provide enough resources to schools with a large number of LEP students to help them increase these students’ language proficiency to a sufficient extent that they can progress with their native English speaker peers in both instruction and assessment.
Inconsistency in LEP classification across and within states makes AYP reporting for LEP students even more complex. If students are not correctly identified as LEP, how can their AYP be reliably reported at a subgroup level? Although NCLB attempts to resolve this issue by providing a definition for this group, its criteria for classifying LEP students may face the same problems as the existing classification system (Abedi, 2003; Zehler, Hopstock, Fleishman & Greniuk, 1994).
Inconsistency in the classification of LEP students may lead to more heterogeneity in the LEP subgroup. With a more heterogeneous population, larger numbers of students are needed to provide the statistically reliable results required by NCLB. The population of LEP students in many districts and states is sparse. In many states, there may not be enough students in a district or school to satisfy even the minimum number of 25 students suggested in the literature (Linn, Baker & Herman, 2002). Other researchers have argued that even 25 students may not be enough to provide statistically reliable results and have proposed a minimum group size of 100 students (Hill & DePascale, 2003). Considering a small number of LEP students in many districts and states, the small group size for LEP reporting would be another obstacle in regard to reliable AYP reporting.
The LEP subgroup suffers from yet another major problem related to AYP reporting: The lack of stability of this group. In many states and districts across the nation, LEP students’ level of English proficiency is reevaluated regularly, and if they reach a proficient level of English proficiency, they move out of the LEP subgroup. While this helps the more English-proficient students receive more appropriate instruction and assessment, it results in the LEP subgroup continuing to be low-performing. The students in this group will always be labeled as underachievers, and schools with large number of LEP students will be stuck in the “need for improvement” category.
Some states with substantial numbers of LEP students have expressed concern over this issue. They have proposed ideas and negotiated with the federal government to ease the level of possible negative impact that this situation may have on school, district, and state accountability. For example, Indiana and Delaware will continue to include exited LEP students in the LEP subgroup for 2 years after they have been determined to be proficient in English. Georgia plans to include LEP students as long as they still receive services through the English for Speakers of Other Languages program, even if they have met exit criteria (Erpenbach, Forte-Fast & Potts, 2003). In California, students re-designated as LEP will remain in the LEP category until they reach the proficient or above level on the California Standards Test in English-language arts for 3 consecutive years (California Department of Education, 2003). However, the question of whether this policy will provide a long-term solution to the problem of LEP subgroup instability or serve only as a temporary relief remains unanswered.
The measurement of the academic achievement of LEP students is much more complex than what the NCLB legislation conceives. A fair assessment of students in the four targeted subgroup categories requires much more serious consideration than is outlined in the law. Despite attempting to solve the age-old problem of heterogeneity among LEP students, the NCLB seems to perpetuate it, thereby leaving more room for children to be left behind.
On the other hand, NCLB’s attention to students in the four subgroup categories in general and to the LEP population in particular is a step in the right direction. Considering that Title III of NCLB requires assessment of LEP students’ English proficiency on an annual basis and providing support to states to develop reliable and valid measures of students’ proficiency is promising. Any decisions concerning assessment for all subgroups, particularly LEP students, must be informed by results of research and experience in the education community.
Currently, several tests for measuring students’ level of English language proficiency exist. Some of these tests have been used for many years by different states and districts. In spite of the existence of such tests, states are developing new English language proficiency tests with funding through NCLB’s Enhanced Assessment Instruments. A reasonable explanation for this might be that states did not find that the existing tests provided reliable and valid measures of students’ level of English language proficiency as required by NCLB. If this is the reason for the development of the new tests, then the test developers should be aware of problems in the existing tests to avoid the same problems in the new tests.
For example, a careful review of some of the most commonly used language proficiency tests concluded that the tests differ considerably in types of tasks and specific item content and are based on different theoretical emphases prevalent at the time of their development (Zehler, Hopstock, Fleischman & Greniuk, 1994). This suggests that in the case of some of the existing tests, the English language proficiency domain was not operationally defined before the test development process. This and similar studies and reviews should inform the development process of new tests. For example, it is imperative this domain be operationally defined before any effort in developing an English proficiency test. This definition should be based on current developments in the areas of psycholinguistics, developmental psychology, education, linguistics, and psychometrics. Content standards for English for speakers of other languages should also be considered (Bailey & Butler, 2003).
In analyzing data from the administration of existing language proficiency tests, researchers have expressed concerns about the reliability and validity of these tests, the adequacy of the scoring directions, and the limited populations on which test norms are based. For example, analyses of several large data sets from different locations across the nation have shown validity problems in predicting LEP classification and lack of power in identifying different levels of English language proficiency among the LEP student population (Abedi, 2003; Abedi, Leon, & Mirocha, 2003). Those involved in the development of new English language proficiency tests should learn from such research and should conduct more analyses on the wealth of data that exists in this area. To be considered valid and reliable measures of English language proficiency, as outlined in the NCLB, new tests must first go through a rigorous validation process. Otherwise, there may not be a reasonable justification to spend the limited NCLB resources on English language proficiency test development (Abedi, 2003).
As a final thought, assessment and accountability of LEP students cannot be pursued in isolation of other important factors. An effective education system for LEP students that may lead to a successful AYP outcome should include at least three interactive components: (a) classification, (b) instruction, and (c) assessment. A problem in any one of these components may affect the other two. For example, a student misclassified as LEP student may be assigned a different curriculum and thus receives inappropriate instruction. Alternately, inappropriate instruction may result in low performance that may in turn result in misclassification. While each component has a unique role, they share common ground - the effect of language factors or barriers. Unnecessary linguistic complexity of assessment may threaten the validity and equitability of assessment among LEP students. Complex linguistic structure of instruction may negatively affect LEP students’ ability to understand classroom instruction, and invalid assessment of students’ level of English proficiency may result in misclassification. In a positive light, valid assessment may provide diagnostic information that can inform instruction and classification (Abedi, 2003).
An effective way to help LEP students reach proficiency in the AYP model is to consider the broader picture using the interactive model. The following are few critical needs:
1. Improve current LEP classification and assessment. There is a need to establish a common definition of English language proficiency and substantially improve the validity of LEP instruments. Among other things, validity of LEP assessment can be enhanced by avoiding cultural biases and reducing unnecessary linguistic complexity of assessments.
2. Improve monitoring of progress. Schools need effective and valid data collection methods that can be used to monitor LEP progress at every stage of a student’s education. Weaknesses must be quickly addressed with appropriate instructional strategies.
3. Improve teacher quality. LEP students need teachers who are well qualified in both language development and content, each of which plays a crucial role in LEP student achievement. The federal government can play a key role in this process by funding and encouraging programs that improve teacher capacity in this dual role. Teachers of LEP students should receive training in content delivery, language sheltering, and the teaching of the academic language.
4. Consider redesignated LEP students as part of the LEP subgroup that established the baseline score. State plans allowing redesignated students to remain in the LEP subgroup for only a limited time are temporary fixes. While new LEP students are added to the subgroup, redesignated students should be retained for AYP reporting. This “semicohort” approach to tracking LEP students allows the progress of redesignated students to be counted toward subgroup AYP progress (Abedi, 2003).
Based on the results of the research, policymakers, lawmakers, and decision makers are urged to take appropriate action to correct the inequities resulting from the NCLB in regard to the subgroups targeted by the legislation, particularly the LEP student subgroup. What is encouraging is that states, in collaboration with the federal government, are taking steps to remedy some of these issues. The hope is that these continued efforts will bring more fairness into the assessment of and accountability for LEP students (Abedi, 2003).
High Stakes / Statewide Testing
The 2001 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), also known as the No Child Left Behind (NCLB), carries testing and accountability requirements that will substantially increase student testing and hold all schools accountable for student performance. This legislation marks a major departure from the federal government’s traditional role regarding elementary and secondary education. It requires that states administer Reading and Mathematics tests annually in grades 3 – 8 and during one year in high school starting in 2005 – 2006. These requirements will affect almost 25 million students each school year (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002).
NCLB requires states to meet adequate yearly progress (AYP) goals to ensure school accountability for student achievement on state tests. Schools that fail to achieve AYP goals face demanding corrective actions, such as replacement of school staff, implementation of new curriculum, extension of the school day or academic year, parental choice options, and, finally, complete reorganization.
Today’s widespread implementation of standards-based reform and the federal government’s commitment to test-based accountability ensure that testing will remain a central issue in education for the foreseeable future. Test results can provide useful information about student progress toward meeting curricular standards. But when policymakers insist on linking test scores to high-stakes consequences for students and schools, they often overlook lessons from the long history of research (Abrams & Madaus, 2003).
Current emphasis on testing as a tool of education reform continues a long tradition of using tests to change pedagogical priorities and practices. In the United States, this use of testing dates back to 1845 in Boston, when Horace Mann, then Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education, replaced the traditional oral examination with a standardized written essay test. Internationally, high-stakes testing extends as far back as the 15th century in Treviso, Italy, where teacher salaries were linked to student examination performance (Madaus & O’Dwyer, 1999).
Principles of Testing Programs
A 1988 examination of the effects of high-stakes testing programs on teaching and learning in Europe and in the United States (Madaus, 1988) identified seven principles that captured the intended and unintended consequences of such programs. Current research confirms that these principles still hold true for contemporary statewide testing efforts.
Principle 1: The power of tests to affect individuals, institutions, curriculum, or instruction is a perceptual phenomenon. Tests produce large effects if students, teachers, or administrators believe that the results are important. Policymakers and the public generally do believe that test scores provide a reliable, external, objective measure of school quality. They view tests as symbols of order, control and attainment (Airasian, 1988).
Today’s high-stakes testing movement relies on the symbolic importance of test scores. Forty-eight states currently require schools to provide the public with “report cards” (Edwards, 2003). Goldhaber and Hannaway (2001) found that the stigma associated with a school receiving a low grade on the state report card was a more powerful influence on Florida teachers than were the school-level sanctions imposed for poor test results.
Principle 2: The more any quantitative social indicator is used for social decision making, the more likely it will be to distort and corrupt the social process it is intended to monitor. In other words, placing great importance on state tests can have a major influence on what takes place in the classrooms, often resulting in an emphasis on test preparation that can compromise the credibility or accuracy of test scores as a measure of student achievement.
We can assess whether this principle still applies today by examining the relationship between rising state test scores and scores on other achievement tests. Both old and new studies of this relationship (Amrein & Berliner, 2002; Haladyna, Nolen & Haas, 1991; Klein, Hamilton, McCaffrey & Stecher, 2000; Linn, 1998) show that improvements in the state test scores do not necessarily reflect general achievement gains.
We can find examples of this second principle in two recent surveys of teachers’ opinions. In one national study, roughly 40% of responding teachers reported that they had found ways to raise state-mandated test scores without, in their opinion, actually improving learning (Pedulla, Abrams, Madaus, Russell, Ramos & Miao, 2003). Similarly, in a Texas survey, 50% of the responding teachers did not agree that the rise in Texas Assessment of Academic Skills (TAAS) scores “reflected increased learning and high-quality teaching” (Hoffman, Assaf & Paris, 2001, p. 488).
Principle 3: If important decisions are based on test results, then teachers will teach to the test. Curriculum standards and tests can focus instruction and provide administrators, teachers, and students with clear goals. A substantial body of past data and recent research confirms that as the stakes increase, the curriculum narrows to reflect the content sampled by the test (Jones et al., 1999; Madaus, 1991; McMillan, Myran, & Workman, 1999; Pedulla et al., 2003; Stecher, Barron, Chun & Ross, 2000).
New York State, where the state department of education is requiring schools to spend more time on the NCLB-tested areas of Reading and Mathematics, provides an example on how such pressure encourages schools to give greater attention to tested content and decrease emphasis on non-tested content. According to one school principal, “the art, music, and everything else are basically out the window… something has to go” (Herszenhorn, 2003).
Principle 4: In every setting where a high-stakes test operates, the examination content eventually defines the curriculum. Pressure and sanctions associated with a state test often result in teachers using the content of past tests to prepare students for the new test. Several studies have documented that an overwhelming majority of teachers feel pressure to improve student performance on the state test. For example, 88% of teachers surveyed in Maryland and 98% in Kentucky believed that they were under “undue pressure” to improve student performance (Koretz, Barron, Mitchell & Keith, 1996a, 1996b). As an outgrowth of this pressure, the amount of instructional time devoted to specific test preparation often increased.
Studies have found that teachers are spending a sizable amount of instructional time and using a variety of test-specific methods to prepare students for their state tests (Herman & Golan, n.d.; Hoffman, Assaf, & Paris, 2001). In North Carolina, 80% of elementary teachers surveyed “spent more than 20% of their total instructional time practicing for the end-of-grade tests” (Jones et al., 1999, p. 201). A national survey found that teachers in high-stakes states were four times more likely than those in low-stakes setting to report spending more than 30 hours a year on test preparation activities, such as teaching or reviewing topics that would be on the state test, providing students with items similar to those on the test, and using commercial test-preparation materials from previous years for practice (Pedulla et al., 2003).
Principle 5: Teachers pay attention to the form of the questions of high-stakes tests (short-answer, essay, multiple-choice, and so on) and adjust their instruction accordingly. A wide variety of research confirms that test format does influence instruction in both positive and negative ways.
Studies in states that require students to formulate and provide written responses to test questions show an increased emphasis on teaching writing and higher-level thinking skills (Taylor, Shepard, Kinner & Rosenthal, 2003). For example, in Kentucky, 80% of teachers surveyed indicated that they had increased their instructional emphasis on problem solving and writing as a result of the portfolio-based state test (Koretz, Barron, Mitchell, & Keith, 1996a).
In several studies, teachers have reported decreases in the use of more time-consuming instructional strategies and lengthy enrichment activities (Pedulla et al., 2003). A study found that the format of the state test may adversely affect the use of technology for instructional purposes: One-third of teachers in high-stakes states said that they were less likely to use computers to teach writing because students were required to construct handwritten responses on the state test (Russell & Abrams, n.d.).
Principle 6: When test results are the sole or even partial arbiter of future education or life choices, society treats test results as the major goal of schooling rather than as a useful but fallible indicator of achievement. Almost 100 years ago, a chief inspector of schools in England described this principle in a way that resonates today: Whenever the outward standard of reality (examination results) has established itself at the expense of the inward, the ease with which worth (or what passes for such) can be measured is ever tending to become itself the chief, if not sole, measure of worth. And in proportion as we tend to value the results of education for their measurableness, so we tend to undervalue and at last ignore those results which are too intrinsically valuable to be measured (Holmes, 1911).
In the next five years, almost half of U.S. states will require students to pass a state-mandated test as a requirement for graduation (Edwards, 2003). As a result, a passing score on the state test is the coin of the realm for students, parents, teachers, and administrators. The social importance placed on state test scores ensures that students’ successful performance on the state test is the ultimate goal for schools. Local press coverage on school pass rates and anecdotal evidence that scores on the state test may influence local real estate sales show the importance of test performance as a surrogate for education quality.
Principle 7: A high-stakes test transfers control over the curriculum to the agency that sets or controls the examination. State standards-based reform efforts leave the details and development of testing programs to state departments of education and whomever the department contracts with to construct the test. This system shifts the responsibility for determining curricular priorities and performance standards away from local school administrators or classroom teachers and often results in a one-size–fits-all curriculum and test.
Falmouth, Massachusetts, provides a recent noteworthy example of how a high-stakes state test can override local control. Under the threat of losing state funding and the licensure of the school principal and superintendent, the Falmouth School Committee reversed a decision to award diplomas to special-needs students who failed the Massachusetts state examination, thus shattering the hopes of a student seeking admittance to a nonacademic culinary degree program (Myers, 2003).
Accountability in Testing
No one denies the importance of accountability. The relationship between test scores and accountability, however, is not as simple as some people think. The seven principles formulated in 1988 have been acted out in state after state in the past 15 years and clearly reveal the serious flaws in the practice of using a single high-stakes measure to hold all students and schools accountable.
Cut-off scores that place students in such performance categories as needs improvement, basic, proficient, or advanced are arbitrary. The subjective methods used to categorize students into performance categories often lack validity (Horn, Ramos, Blumer & Madaus, 2000). Most policymakers and the public do not understand the psychometric underpinnings of the tests. Issues that might seem trivial to them, such as the assumptions made when running computer programs that produce scaled scores, and even basic decisions about rounding, have significant consequences when categorizing students.
Like any measurement tool that produces a number, test scores are fallible. Yet most state laws do not consider margin of error when interpreting students’ scores. Misguided executive decisions, poorly conceived legislation, understaffing, unrealistic reporting deadlines, and unreasonable progress goals can cause numerous errors in test scores (Rhoades & Madaus, 2003).
One single test can only sample knowledge and cannot give a full picture of what students know and can do. As an illustration, Harlow and Jones’s (2003) interviews with students showed that on the science portion of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the students had more knowledge about concepts than their written answers had demonstrated for more than half of the test questions. Conversely, the interviews suggested that for one-third of the items, students lacked a sound understanding of the information assessed even though they had given the correct response.
A fundamental principle in social science research is to always use at least two methods when studying social science phenomena because relying on only one method can produce misleading results. We need to enhance state testing programs by including multiple measures of student achievement. Measuring in a variety of ways does not mean giving students multiple opportunities to take the same test, but rather incorporating other methods of measurement or additional criteria, such as teacher judgments, when making decisions about grade promotion and graduation (Harlow & Jones, 2003).
As districts, schools, and teachers respond to federal and state-based accountability policies, we must step back from a blind reliance on test scores. We need to acknowledge that tests, although useful, are also fallible indicators of achievement. We also need to recognize that when test scores are linked to high-stakes consequences, they can weaken the learning experiences of students, transform teaching into test preparation, and taint the test itself so that it no longer measures what it was intended to measure (Harlow & Jones, 2003).
Effects of High-Stakes Testing on Student Motivation and Learning
Current generation of policymakers did not invent high-stakes testing. Tests of various sorts have determined which immigrants could enter the United States at the turn of the 20th century, who could serve in the armed forces, who was gifted, who needed special education, and who received scholarships to college. But the NCLB Act of 2001 aims to make high-stakes testing more pervasive than ever before, mandating annual testing of students in grades 3 – 8 in Reading and Mathematics.
Federal legislators who overwhelmingly passed this act into law apparently assumed that high-stakes testing would improve student motivation and raise student achievement. Because testing programs similar to those required by NCLB already exist in many states, we can put that assumption to the test.
Eighteen states currently use examinations to grant or withhold diplomas: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia. Most of these states also attach to their state assessments a broad range of other consequences for students, teachers, and schools. The experiences of these states can help predict how the new nationwide program of high-stakes testing will affect student achievement.
Unfortunately, the evidence shows that such tests actually decrease student motivation and increase the proportion of students who leave school early. Further, student achievement in the 18 high-stakes testing states has not improved on a range of measures, such as the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), despite higher scores on the state’s own assessments (Amrein & Berliner, 2003).
High-stakes testing assumes that rewards and consequences attached to rigorous tests will “motivate the unmotivated” to learn (Orfield & Kornhaber, 2001). The “unmotivated” are usually identified as low socio-economic students in urban schools, often African Americans and Latinos. Researchers have found that when rewards and sanctions are attached to performance on tests, students become less intrinsically motivated to learn and less likely to engage in critical thinking. In addition, they have found that high-stakes testing cause teachers to take greater control of the learning experiences of their students, denying their students opportunities to direct their own learning. When the stakes get high, teachers no longer encourage students to explore the concepts and subjects that interest them. Attaching stakes to tests apparently obstruct students’ path to becoming lifelong, self-directed learners and alienates students from their own learning experiences in school (Sheldon & Biddle, 1998).
Dropout rates are climbing throughout the United States and many researchers hold high-stakes testing at least partly to blame (Rothstein, 2002). Some researchers found that dropout rates were 4 to 6 percent higher in schools with high school graduation examinations. Another study reported that students in the bottom quintile in states with high-stakes testing were 25% more likely to drop out of high school than were their peers in states without high-stakes testing (Jacob, 2001). Researchers in yet another study found that failing these tests significantly increased the likelihood that even students with better academic records would drop out (FairTest & Massachusetts CARE, 2000).
More and more teenagers are exiting formal schooling early to earn a General Educational Development (GED) credential (Murnane, Willett, & Tyler, 2000). Although young people who have earned such alternative degrees do not technically count in dropout statistics, many of them undoubtedly left school because of their concerns about passing rigorous graduation tests.
Students who repeat a grade are significantly more likely to drop out of school (Goldschmidt & Wang, 1999). In states where promotion to the next grade hinges on passing the state exams, high-stakes testing policies contribute to higher dropout rates in the long run. Even before they actually take the test, struggling students are more likely to be retained in grade if they attend schools in high-stakes testing environments. By holding low-achieving students back, schools ensure that these students have more of the knowledge necessary to perform well on high-stakes testing the next year and keep low-performing students’ test scores out of the composite test performance in the grades in which high-stakes testing matter.
In Texas, students from racial minorities and low socio-economic backgrounds are being retained in Grade 9 at very high rates before taking the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills (TAAS) in Grade 10. Many teachers retain students if they doubt their potential to pass TAAS the following year. McNeil (2000) estimated that half of all minority students enrolled in Texas high schools are technically enrolled as freshmen. Although some of them are 9th graders for the first time, thousands of others have been retained in the 9th grade once or even twice. Other researchers (Haney, 2000, 2001; Klein, Hamilton, McCaffey & Stecher, 2000; Yardley, 2000) have verified her numbers. In 1998, one in every four African American and Latino 9th graders in Texas was retained (Fisher, 2000). After these students are retained, thousands of them drop out of school.
Common problems of high-stakes testing programs are quite likely to affect the breadth and depth of student learning. If schools narrow the curriculum they teach; make heavy use of drill activities tied to the state test; cheat by over-identifying language minority and special education students and then keeping these students from taking these tests; retain poorly performing students in grade; and encourage those who are at least likely to pass the state’s test to drop out, then scores on state tests will almost certainly go up. But have students really learned any more than they did before high-stakes testing policies were instituted (Fisher, 2000)?
Other Considerations of Assessment and Testing
Although NCLB now requires all students to be accounted for in any state’s assessment system, this has not always been the case (Anderson, 2004). In the past, groups of students such as English language learners or students in Special Education were systematically excluded from large scale assessments (State, 1999), or their scores were not reported (Thurlow, Neilson, Tellucksingh, & Ysseldyke, 2000).
In the 2002-2003 school year, the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) replaced the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills (TAAS) as the primary statewide assessment program. TAKS is designed by legislative mandate to be more comprehensive than its predecessors and encompasses more of the state-mandated curriculum, the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS), at more grade levels than TAAS did. The high school level assessments, administered at Grades 9, 10 and 11, are grounded in the high school TEKS curriculum. By law, students for whom TAKS is the graduation testing requirement must pass exit level tests in four content areas – English Language Arts, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies – in order to graduate from a Texas public high school (Technical Digest, 2003-2004).
In Texas, there is evidence that the numbers of black and Hispanic students in Special Education rose between 1994-1998 while the state implemented its statewide testing program which excluded some Special Education students from the reported scores (Haney, 2000). It is interesting to note that while the numbers of African-American and Hispanic students are over-represented in Special Education, about eight to nine percent of English language learners are identified as receiving Special Education services in the US (D’Emilio, 2003, June; Zehler, Fleischman, Hopstock, Pendzick, & Stepherson, 2003).
Labeling schools can have an impact on teacher and student morale (Anderson, 2004). Certainly, poor test scores or poorly explained assessment systems can result in decreased student motivation (Lane & Stone, 2002). Teachers have also reported that the high-stakes nature of some assessments can have a negative impact on student morale (Flores & Clark, 2003). Although some teachers have reported that their English language learners can reach the high standards set for them, they may need more time than other students (Hood, 2003).
For English-language learners, the additional requirements of an exit examination could increase dropout rates (Anderson, 2004). Hispanic students, many of whom are English-language learners, have higher dropout rates than the population as a whole (Barro & Kolstad, 1987; Kaufman, Alt, & Chapman, 2001).
In another study, teachers reported that increasing emphasis on test scores cause them to dislike their jobs (Hinde, 2003). In a study examining the discussion and journal entries from teachers, Flores and Clark (2003) found that teachers were not against accountability and viewed it as distinct from statewide testing, but also thought that an over-emphasis on testing resulted in unbalanced curriculum and inappropriate instructional decisions. In order for teachers to make specific changes to instruction, the assessments needs to be clear as to what skills are being assessed (Popham, 2003). Some teachers may react to low test scores of English language learners by teaching to the test while others may ignore the impact of the test scores all together (Alderson & Wall, 1993).
Testing cannot be divorced from socio-cultural, economic, and psychological issues (Solano-Flores & Trumbull, 2003). ELLs, for instance, may not score any differently in an assessment even when allowed to use a dictionary (Albus, Thurlow, Liu & Bielinski, 2005). This is further complicated by the theory forwarded by Wang and Koda (2005) that ELLs as a group may have diverse styles in developing English Language proficiency. Therefore modifications are adapted to teach ELLs the academic content of a lesson, and at the same time support the acquisition of a new language (Major, Fitzmaurice, Bunta, & Balasubramanian, 2005).
ELLs are particularly vulnerable to high-stakes decisions based on test results; tests are used to make decisions regarding high school graduation, grade promotion, and the placement of ELLs into tracked programs (Heubert & Hauser, 1999).
A study of washback from a test in Hong Kong demonstrated that change in the assessment could change the ways in which teachers and students interacted (Cheng, 1999). School Administrators and teachers, as well as students, need to be motivated to change the way learning takes place and also be invested in demonstrating achievement on the assessments in order for washback to instruction to take place and be successful (Lane & Stone, 2002).
Related Studies
Quantitative
A study by Escamilla, Mahon, Riley-Bernal & Rutledge (2003) on “High-Stakes Testing, Latinos, and English Language Learners: Lessons from Colorado”, the researchers utilized the results of the Colorado Student Achievement Program (CSAP) across 3 years (1999 – 2001) to determine the impact that standards-based education in Colorado is having on Latino students in general, and on Latino ELLs specifically. The CSAP has been created as the performance standard to determine progress that Colorado students in Grades 3 and 4 are making toward meeting content standards. For this study, the English and Spanish CSAP tests for reading and writing in Grades 3 and 4 were considered to be comparable assessments. This study also examined the extent to which school report card grades were affected in schools with large number of ELLs. Results of the study indicated that the percentage of Latinos meeting state standards as measured by the Spanish CSAP is equivalent to, and in some cases higher, than the percentage who are taking the CSAP in English. A gap exists between Latinos, no matter what their language of instruction and testing, and all Colorado third and fourth graders. This study indicated that there is a significant relationship between a school’s report card grade and the number of ELLs in the school. For the districts sampled, 76.5% of the unsatisfactory schools were highly impacted by ELLs; 62% of the schools receiving low grades had large number of ELLs.
The purpose of another study by Mahon (2006) on “High-Stakes Testing and English Language Learners: Questions of Validity” was to understand the relationships between English proficiency and academic performance of ELLs from 4 elementary schools. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to examine scores from the Language Assessment Scales – Oral Short Form (LAS-O), the Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey (WMLS), and the Colorado Student Assessment Program. The LAS-O and WMLS are state-approved English proficiency assessments. Results showed that English proficiency was significantly related to English academic achievement, even for ELLs who had been in the U.S. schools for 3 years or longer. The 5th grade ELL cohort had greater increases in reading and writing scores compared to all Colorado 5th graders. This led to a slight closing of the achievement gap. Spanish achievement, especially when combined with English proficiency, predicted English achievement.
Qualitative
In a study on “Intended and Unintended Consequences of Statewide Testing for ESL Curriculum and Instruction”, Anderson (2004) examined what positive or negative impact assessment systems have on the curriculum and instruction of English language learners in one Midwestern school district. The researcher used focus groups and interviews to obtain views of educators on the consequences of statewide testing for ELLs. Positive consequences that were identified included more teacher collaboration, changes in curriculum and instruction, better alignment between ESL and content area curricula and more focus on reading and writing. Negative consequences included student and teacher frustration, more teaching to the test occurring, and a narrowed curriculum. Educators in the study also identified problems with the accountability system and made recommendations for how it could be improved (Anderson, 2004).
Another study on “Inclusion of Students with Limited English Proficiency in National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): Classification and Measurement Issues” conducted by Abedi (2004) reported the major concerns over classification and measurements for students with limited English proficiency (LEP). Issues included the poor operational definition of English proficiency construct and validity concerns on the existing language proficiency tests. The study discussed issues concerning the classification of ELLs and elaborated on factors that impact decisions to include ELLs in NAEP assessments. With funding through a competitive bidding process authorized under the NCLB section on Enhanced Assessment Instruments, there are national efforts underway to develop English proficiency tests that can be used to provide valid measures of students’ level of English proficiency (Abedi, 2004).
Wall (2000) made a microethnographic case study entitled “A Case Study of Secondary School Efforts Toward English Language Learner Success in a Standards-Based Reform System.” This study was designed to describe and interpret the site-based decision-making process of a collaborative study group of high school educators as they focused on the appropriate participation of ELLs in a district wide, standards-based, reform initiative. The research question which guided the study was: From what perspectives and with what outcomes does a collaborative group of site-based, high school educators deliberate the participation of ELLs in a standards-based reform system which mandates high stakes assessments? Three themes emerged from the study: (a) personal discovery, (b) informed action, and (c) instructional advocacy. These themes suggested phases of sociolinguistic accommodation through which educators progress in their reform-based deliberations regarding appropriate approaches to support ELLs in a high-stakes assessment system (Wall, 2000).
This study on the impact of high-stakes testing on ELLs in major urban high schools in Texas showed quantitatively how the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school affects the school’s performance in the State’s assessment. Qualitatively, it gathered the input and feedback of educators on the different concerns included in the study: (a) purpose of TAKS, (b) changes caused by TAKS, (c) consequences of TAKS, (d) recommendations to improve TAKS, and (e) needs of ELLs.
Summary
As stated in chapter I, the purpose of this study was to determine the impact of high-stakes testing on ELLs. This was shown in both the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of the study. Data obtained from TEA were used to determine whether there is a relationship between the percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006. To support the quantitative aspect, this study explored what certified ESL teachers, non-certified ESL teachers who teach ELLs, administrators, and district ESL personnel viewed as the impact that high stakes standardized assessments have on ELLs, ESL curriculum and instruction, and what they observed as actually occurring.
The mandates and key elements of the NCLB were geared towards improving the achievement of students in the different public schools of the United States. The measure of adherence was channeled through the AYP that the different schools and districts of the different states monitor and report. High-stakes testing became the measuring stick that gauged the achievement of students in the different core subject areas. Issues and concerns were centered on the ELLs regarding the different moves and accommodations given to this special subgroup of learners. Feedback regarding the issues and concerns of the different studies and researches included both positive and negative dimensions.
Arthur L. Petterway, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Standardized testing and assessments have become necessary facets of American education. Consequently, accountability testing is currently implemented in practically every state in the U.S. Since the purpose of this increased level of accountability is to ensure that all students are receiving a quality, standards-based education, it is important to document the consequences of the system to ensure that the intended reforms are taking place. One of the goals of the accountability system should be to document any negative opposing impact that could occur so that interventions can be developed so that these consequences can be minimized.
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of high-stakes testing on ELLs. This is shown in both the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of the study. Data obtained from TEA were used to determine whether there is a relationship between the percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006. To support the quantitative aspect, this study explored what certified ESL teachers, non-certified ESL teachers who teach ELLs, administrators, and district ESL personnel viewed as the impact that high stakes standardized assessments have on ELLs, ESL curriculum and instruction, and what they observed as actually occurring.
The study also addressed concerns regarding the validity of student evaluations, and the common inferences made about student performance in these assessments. There is a need to know how public schools that have diverse student attributes can be held accountable on the basis of one uniform and universal standard. Since the standardized assessments are given in English, schools with predominantly Hispanic populations may already be at a disadvantage through no fault of their own. What needs to be examined is whether standardized assessments facts are free from linguistic and cultural bias as viewed by teachers of ELLs.
Research Questions
Quantitative
Is there a relationship between the percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006?
Null Hypotheses
HO1: There is no statistically significant relationship between the
percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in English Language Arts given in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006.
HO2: There is no statistically significant relationship between the
percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006.
Qualitative
The major question answered by this study was: What are the anticipated and observed consequences of statewide testing specifically, TAKS, on ELLs, ESL curriculum and instruction as viewed by certified ESL teachers, non-certified ESL teachers who teach ELLs, school administrators, and district ESL personnel?
This major question was explored using the following probes:
1. Why is TAKS given as a statewide test?
2. What are the intended consequences of this statewide testing? (Or what has happened because of TAKS?)
3. What problems have occurred related to or because of TAKS?
4. What changes were caused by this statewide testing?
5. What are your recommendations to improve this statewide testing?
6. What needs to be done for the ELLs to improve their performance in general and specifically for this statewide test?
Research Methods
Both descriptive and comparative research techniques were employed in the explanatory design of the mixed methods study. Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) stated that Creswell describes the two types of mixed methods.
1. In a triangulation design, the researcher simultaneously collects both quantitative and qualitative data, compares results, and then uses those findings to see whether they validate each other (p. 443).
2. In an explanatory design, the researcher first collects and analyzes quantitative data, and then obtains qualitative data to follow up and refine the quantitative findings (p. 443).
For this study, the explanatory design was used. Quantitative data for this research were gathered through TEA to determine if a relationship existed between the percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006. Qualitative data were obtained through the online, open-ended questionnaire and individual and focus group interviews about the varied ways in which standardized assessments impacted ELLs.
For the qualitative research component, the study used the cross-sectional, open-ended questionnaire. A cross-sectional, open-ended questionnaire collects information from a sample that has been drawn from a predetermined population. Furthermore, the information is collected at just one point in time, although the time it takes to collect the data may take anywhere from a day to a few weeks or more (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003).
The study also utilized descriptive research methods. Isaac and Michael (1995, p. 46) describes this type of research as: “to describe systematically a situation or area of interest factually or accurately.” A survey study also falls under the classification of descriptive research. Van Dalen (1979) lists the purpose of survey studies:
1. To collect detailed factual information that describes existing phenomena.
2. To identify problems or justify current conditions and practices.
3. To make comparisons and evaluations.
4. To determine what others are doing with similar problems or situations and benefit from their experience in making future plans and decisions.
Research Design
Since the study utilized the explanatory design of the mixed methods, the investigator first gathered quantitative data from Texas Education Agency (TEA) regarding the major urban high schools in Texas. TEA records personnel assisted in accessing and retrieving data from the TEA website. Qualitative data were obtained through the online, open-ended questionnaire and individual and focus group interviews; views and opinions of the respondents were gathered and collated to validate and support the quantitative data.
Quantitative Data
From the Texas Education Agency, the following data regarding the urban high schools were gathered: the percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006.
Qualitative Data
Qualitative data were obtained using an online, open-ended questionnaire given to principals, assistant principals, ESL district personnel, ESL certified teachers and non-ESL certified teachers who were purposively sampled for the study and through the individual and focus group interviews using open-ended questions about the varied ways in which standardized assessments impact ELLs.
Pilot Study
Two Houston Independent School District schools, not included in the main study were selected for the pilot study. Quantitative data were obtained regarding the schools’ percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all their 10th grade students passing TAKS in the two core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics. This was for the four school years starting with the first school year 2002 – 2003, when TAKS was administered.
During the pilot study the online questionnaire underwent pre-testing with three basic considerations: (1) administered the pre-test under conditions comparable to those anticipated in the final study; (2) analyzed the results to assess the effectiveness of the trial questionnaire to yield the information desired; and (3) made appropriate additions, deletions, and modifications to the questionnaire (Isaac & Michael, 1995).
Qualitative data resulting from an online open-ended questionnaire on the six different concerns listed below were tabulated combining the results from the two schools. Results were categorized using the NVivo software package but the categories were modified based on the expert opinion of the respondents belonging to the focus groups. The frequencies for the responses by the different respondents (teachers, school administrators and district ESL personnel) pertaining to the different categories were tallied and percentages were computed. Listing of categories was based on the total frequencies; those categories identified most by the respondents were listed first followed by those with lower frequencies. The different concerns included the following: (1) Purpose of TAKS; (2) Consequences of TAKS; (3) Problems Related to TAKS; (4) Changes Caused by TAKS; (5) Recommendations to Improve TAKS; and (6) Needs of ELLs.
Results of the focus group and one-on-one interviews were validated against the results of the online questionnaire and provided explanation or support for the answers given. The categories for the different responses were affirmed or modified by the focus groups.
Population and Samples
Quantitative Data
The TEA provided the data on the percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006. The researcher used purposive sampling in selecting schools for this study. Purposive sampling is based on the assumptions that the investigator wants to discover, understand, and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which the most can be learned (Merriam, 1998).
While not a random sampling of high schools, the sample is not intended to create results that can be generalized to all major urban high schools in the U.S. A purposive sampling was used in order to provide a representative sample of the major urban high schools in Texas in order to gain in-depth insight into what impact might be occurring. The impact that might emerge from this study might occur in other high schools, but it is important to take into account the characteristics of the high schools as well as the assessment system in the state in order to extrapolate from the findings and make comparisons with other situations (Patton, 1990).
Qualitative Data
The online, open-ended questionnaire was given to the principals, assistant principals, certified ESL teachers and non-ESL certified teachers handling ELLs of the selected schools and to the district personnel:
Total
1) ESL Teachers 30
2) Non-Certified ESL Teachers 30
3) Principals 10
4) Assistant Principals 20
5) District ESL Personnel 8
Total 98
The different focus groups consisted of ESL certified and non-ESL certified teachers handling ELLs. One-on-one interviews involved the selected principals and the selected district ESL personnel. The same schools and district personnel who answered the online questionnaire were included in the focus groups and one-on-one interviews. Selection of the participants in the focus group interviews utilized the snowballing technique. Participants will identify others whose input or experience will also be valuable to the study (Krathwohl, 1993).
Since the researcher has the obligation to respect and protect the rights and wishes of the research participants, the following actions were done: (1) the researcher protected anonymity of the participants by using computer-given codes for the responses; and (2) the researcher informed the participants about the purpose of the survey.
The security of the raw data gathered through the records sections of TEA and the selected schools, responses to the online questionnaire and the transcripts of the interviews was assured in order to protect the anonymity of the participants and to uphold the trustworthiness of the study.
The above concerns regarding trustworthiness and confidentiality of data or information were shared with the participants when the researcher contacted them through e-mail, telephone, mail, or in person.
Instrumentation
Quantitative data were accessed and retrieved from the TEA website regarding the major urban high schools in Texas. Data were organized for computations utilizing the SPSS software package, Version 14.0.
The online, open-ended questionnaire provided one of the bases for the qualitative data. The triangulation method included categorizing the responses to the online, open-ended questionnaire into emergent themes, interviewing the focus groups of teachers and assistant principals and one-on-one interviews with the principals and district ESL personnel.
According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) personal interview is probably one of the most effective ways there is to enlist the cooperation of respondents in a survey; rapport can be established, questions can be clarified, unclear or incomplete answers can be followed up and so on.
Patton (1990) expounds that the purpose of interviews is to gain access to those areas of the participants’ experiences or thought which cannot be observed. Consequently, interviews will play a significant role in data collection, a role which generally cannot be duplicated by other means (Dexter, 1970).
Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) cite the following advantages of open-ended questions in survey research (a) allows more freedom of response; (b) easier to construct; and (c) permits follow-up by interviewer. But there are also disadvantages: (a) responses tend to be inconsistent in length and content across respondents; (b) both questions and responses may be subject to misinterpretation; and (c) responses are harder to tabulate and synthesize. However, these disadvantages can be minimized through the use of the NVivo software package, expert help from the focus groups in classifying categories, follow-up interviews with the focus groups and one-on-one interviews.
Validity and Reliability
For validity and reliability, the following expert opinions were considered. “Validity, I mean truth: interpreted on the extent to which an account accurately represents the social phenomena to which it refers” (Hammersley, 1990, p. 57). “Reliability refers to the degree of consistency with which instances are assigned to the same category by different observers or by the same observer on different occasions” (Hammersley, 1990, p. 67). The triangulation method involving the analysis of the qualitative data, collation of data from the online questionnaire and interviews assured the validity and reliability of the survey questions and the explanatory design of the mixed methods study.
For the quantitative dimension of the study, validity and reliability measurements were derived from the TAKS report prepared by TEA. Validity is a process of collecting evidence to support inferences made from scoring results of an assessment. In the case of TAKS, test results are used to make inferences about the students’ knowledge and understanding of the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS). Test reliability indicates the consistency of measurement. TAKS test reliabilities are based on internal consistency measures, in particular on the Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (KR-20) for tests involving dichotomously scored (multiple choice) items and on the stratified coefficient alpha for tests involving a mixture of dichotomous and polytomous (essay-prompt and short answer) items.
In order to build trustworthiness in the qualitative aspect of the study, four different criteria were considered to meet this need: (1)credibility, which aims to produce findings that are believable and convincing; (2) transferability, which attempts to apply findings in one setting to other contextually similar settings; (3) dependability, which addresses the question concerning which findings are consistent with those of other similar investigations; and (4) confirmability, which ensures that both the process and the product are auditable (Isaac & Michael, 1995).
Research Procedures
Quantitative
After appropriate permissions for data gathering were obtained, records personnel of TEA were contacted and arrangements made as to process and assistance regarding acquisition of data for the study. The dry-run or pilot study with the two HISD schools facilitated the above process.
Qualitative
The questions in a survey, and the way they are asked, are of crucial importance (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). The authors refer to Floyd Fowler who points out that there are four practical standards that all survey questions should meet:
1. Is this a question that can be asked exactly the way it is written?
2. Is this a question that will mean the same thing to everyone?
3. Is this a question that people can answer?
4. Is this a question that people will be willing to answer, given the data collection procedures? (Fowler, 1984).
After the questionnaire was refined based on the suggestions of the focus groups during the pilot study, the questionnaire was placed online to respondents of the study. Prior to this, the researcher contacted the respondents in person, by phone, by email or mail. Furthermore, the researcher arranged dates with the different schools and districts for the focus group and one-on-one interviews.
Data Collection and Recording
Quantitative
The data for the major urban high schools regarding the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school and the percentage of all Grade 10 students passing the TAKS tests in English Language Arts and Mathematics during the four years when TAKS was administered, starting school year 2002 – 2003 were obtained from the TEA website.
Qualitative
An online, open-ended questionnaire was answered by the principals, assistant principals, ESL teachers, and non-certified teachers handling ELLs of the selected major urban high schools in Texas. District ESL personnel were also requested to answer the same questionnaire. The focus groups offered expert opinions regarding the categories to use in classifying the responses to the questionnaire. Further clarification was requested from the principals and the district ESL personnel during the one-on-one interviews.
Results of the questionnaire were placed in categories suggested by the focus groups after initial classification was done through the NVivo software system. Transcripts of the interviews and focus groups were entered into the NVivo software system (version 7.0) and coded according to themes that emerged in the data. NVivo provides a sophisticated way of electronically organizing interview transcripts for analysis and classification into themes and allowed the researcher to work with a large amount of transcript data. The themes that emerged from the data were compiled and compared between high schools. While NVivo was a valuable sorting tool that allowed the researcher to code, sort, and recall data in different ways, the researcher developed and created codes for the responses gathered. The analysis was done by the researcher using NVivo’s capabilities to sort out the complexities of the rich data from the interviews and focus groups. A program such as NVivo can help the researcher ensure that the qualitative data were well-organized (Weitzman, 2000).
One of the strengths of collecting qualitative data is the richness of the information that can be collected and which can capture a theme in a more complete way than the researcher may be able to summarize. This evidence directly from the data was used to show a clear connection between the data and the identified themes (Marshall, 1990). The rich description of the themes from the participants’ own words also aids in verifying that the themes identified are those that the participants actually voiced (Creswell, 1998; Krueger & Casey, 2000).
The researcher triangulated quantitative data analysis, qualitative data analysis, and interviews in order to strengthen the credibility of the survey study. By combining multiple observers, theories, methods, and data sources, researchers can hope to overcome the intrinsic bias that comes from single-method, single-observer and single-theory studies (Denzin, 1970). With the mix of analyses, the author has better tools to discuss the impact of statewide testing on ELLs, ESL curriculum and instruction.
Data Analysis
Quantitative
Descriptive statistics and analyses were performed to test each variable. After the data were examined and properly inputted, the next step was to compute for Pearson r correlation coefficients using the SPSS statistical package and test for statistical relationship at p < 0.05. For other analyses, the predictor variable is the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school and the outcome variables were the percentages of all students passing the Grade 10 TAKS tests in English Language Arts and Mathematics. For each of the years under study, two separate Pearson r correlations were computed; the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school was compared with the English Language Arts results to determine if they have significant relationship and the other comparison was with the Mathematics results. The SPSS computations showed three different results in tabular form: (1) the means and the standard deviations of the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school and the percentages of all students passing the TAKS tests in English Language Arts and Mathematics during the four years under study; (2) Pearson r correlation coefficients to determine if there was significant relationship between the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school and the percentages of all students passing the English Language Arts and Mathematics TAKS tests given in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006; and, (3) regression analysis using the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school as the predictor variable to predict the percentage of students passing in the 10th grade TAKS tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics.
Qualitative
The information for the qualitative portion of the study included the emergent themes shown as categories in the frequency distribution table. The frequency distribution is a table in which all score units are listed in one column and the number of individuals receiving each score appears as frequencies in the second column (Isaac and Michael, 1995).
Frequencies were tallied and percentages were computed. Categories with higher percentages were listed first followed by those with lower percentages. An overview preceded each table giving the emergent themes mostly cited by the respondents. Anecdotal records followed the tables - these are the views and opinions of the respondents regarding the different concerns included in the study.
Summary
In this study the researcher considered the aspects of procedural consistency, neutrality of findings, and truth value to assure the study of trustworthiness. “Valid inquiry in any sphere… must demonstrate its truth value, provide the basis for applying it, and allow for external judgments to be made about the consistency of its procedures and the neutrality of its findings or decisions” (Erlandson, 1993).
Quantitative data that were sourced as aggregate data from the TEA website included the percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006.
Qualitative data were collated from the responses of selected respondents to the online questionnaire regarding the anticipated and observed consequences of the statewide testing, specifically TAKS, on ESL curriculum and instruction as viewed by ESL teachers, school administrators and district ESL personnel. Interviews were conducted with the focus groups and one-on-one interviews involved the principals and district ESL personnel.
Presentation of data included: (a) the quantitative data analysis on the correlation between the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS in English Language Arts and Mathematics and the regression analysis using the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school as predictor variable and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS in ELA and Mathematics as outcome variables; (b) qualitative data analysis classifying responses to the online, open-ended questionnaire as different emergent themes; and (c) anecdotal records from the interviews with the different focus groups, principals, and district ESL personnel.
The relationship between the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS in each of the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics was determined using the SPSS program for Pearson r correlation. The regression analysis resulted to linear regression equations predicted the percentage of all students passing in 10th grade TAKS in English Language Arts and Mathematics using the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school as predictor variable.
Emergent themes were categorized through the NVivo software package and suggestions of the focus groups. The anecdotal records expressed the views and opinions of the respondents regarding the following and focused on the ELLs: (a) the purpose of the statewide, high stakes TAKS; (b) intended consequences of TAKS; (c) problems related to TAKS; (d) changes caused by TAKS; (e) recommendations to improve performance in TAKS; and, (f) the needs of ELLs.
Arthur L. Petterway, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
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Arthur L. Petterway, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of high-stakes testing on English Language Learners (ELLs). This was shown in both the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of the study. Both quantitative and qualitative dimensions of the study provided the status of high-stakes testing as it affected ELLs and how it influenced efforts in schools to improve performance of students, particularly ELLs. Data obtained from Texas Education Agency (TEA) were used to determine whether there was a relationship between the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006. To support the qualitative aspect, this study explored what certified English as a Second Language( ESL) teachers, non-certified ESL teachers who teach ELLs, administrators, and district ESL personnel viewed as the impact that high stakes standardized assessments had on ELLs, ESL curriculum and instruction.
Review of literature included the important consideration of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). NCLB holds states using federal funds accountable for student academic achievement. States are required to develop a set of high-quality, yearly student assessments that include, at a minimum, assessments in Reading/Language Arts, Mathematics and Science. NCLB requires states to report Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) for all students and for subgroups, including students with limited English proficiency (Abedi, 2004). Phrases such as “student achievement,” “proficiency,” “raised expectations” and “testing” are implications of NCLB. Certainly, the focus on holding schools accountable for student achievement on standardized tests sets NCLB apart from previous versions of the law (Guilfoyle, 2006).
The focus of the study is the ELLs. The term “English language learner” is a recent designation for students whose first language is not English. This group includes students who are just beginning to learn English as well as those who have already developed considerable proficiency. The driving force behind including English language learners in statewide accountability testing is the legislation requiring it. In order to continue to receive Title I funds through NCLB, states must set high standards for all students and implement accountability systems to measure progress towards those standards. NCLB specifically states that English language learners must be included in statewide accountability testing, that their scores must be disaggregated so that it can be seen how they are achieving as a subgroup, and that the assessment system must accommodate their linguistic needs (“NCLB”, 2002).
High-stakes testing -- using standardized scores to impose consequences affecting teachers and students – has been embraced widely in recent years as a way to hold educators and students accountable for their performance. Experts say the movement is one of the most significant shifts in U.S. education in decades (Whoriskey, 2006).
The goal of statewide accountability testing for English language learners (or for all students for that matter) is to improve standards-based practices. The intended “washback” of including English language learners in standards-based assessment has been described as providing “the leverage needed to raise expectations for English language learners, and the emphasis on higher level skills should improve the quality of teaching provided to them” (Lachat, 1999, p.60), “feedback that will allow instructional leaders to improve instructional programs” (Lacelle-Peterson & Rivera, 1994, p.64), and will ideally “…help students reach the standards by (a) influencing what is taught and how it is taught (i.e., ‘washback’ to instruction), (b) providing data to guide instructional modifications, and (c) targeting resources to schools they are most needed” (Rivera & Vincent, 1997, p.336). In addition, Mehrens (2002) states that large-scale assessments have two major purposes: to drive reform and to gauge if reform policies have had an impact on student learning. These goals are especially important for English language learners who often face socio-economic, cultural, and linguistic challenges to academic achievement.
Demographic Data
Total respondents who answered the online questionnaire totaled 55 – 35% are non-ESL certified teachers and 27% are ESL-certified teachers. The administrators accounted for the remaining 38%- 16% are Assistant Principals, 11% are Principals and 11% are ESL District Personnel.
Conclusions
The analysis of the quantitative data in Chapter IV led the researcher to draw the following conclusions:
1. The descriptive statistics showing the means of the 10th grade TAKS for ELA and Mathematics do not indicate improvement in performance despite the decrease in the percent of ELLs enrolled in a school.
2. All the obtained Pearson r correlation coefficients to determine whether there is a relationship between the percentage of English language learners enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics given in 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006 were all significant at the 0.05 level, two-tailed. Both null hypotheses were rejected.
3. The negative Pearson r correlation coefficients implied that as the percentage of ELLs in a school increased, performance on both English Language Arts and Mathematics decreased.
4. The linear regression equations may be used to predict outcomes in 10th grade TAKS tests in ELA and Mathematics using the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school as the predictor variable.
The analysis of the qualitative data in Chapter IV led the researcher to draw the following conclusions:
1. Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) were perceived by respondents as a tool to gauge knowledge in the core areas.
2. ELLs were expected to have at least average scores on TAKS.
3. There was a difference in the expected and actual results. Respondents observed dismal or failing performance of ELLS in actual results in TAKS. This was evident by the high failure rate of ELLs in their respective schools.
4. Higher dropout rate and lower graduation rates of ELLs were problems encountered due to TAKS.
5. Respondents favored a different test for ELLs.
6. Respondents believed that interventions were needed to help ELLs perform better.
Implications
The research data gathered in the course of this study suggested that while there was a common perception that ELLs performed poorly on high stakes testing, there was no unanimity among professionals in the field of education regarding the viability of options that might be considered in addressing the low achievement level of ELLs. This was not necessarily relevant, although it suggested that the appreciation of the problem and its causes lent itself to biases and distortions depending on the personal circumstance and perspective of those presenting these options. It was clear from the study that schools needed to do things differently, if they expected ELLs to perform better on standardized assessments. The major implications of the study were as follows:
1. The performance of schools in high stakes testing was affected by the size and proportion of ELLs taking the test. At the same time, ELLs were not evenly distributed across campuses. The performance of schools on standardized tests was influenced to a degree by the voluntary segregation in many districts of ethnic groups who speak English only as an adopted language. This was a phenomenon that was beyond the power of school districts to address, and that required wide coordination among various government agencies to develop an appropriate policy response.
2. The extended deferment of standardized tests administered in English to ELLS should be considered. The primary goal of these tests was to measure learning that might be more accurately accomplished if the assessment was done in the language the student was most proficient. There was the expectation that the student will eventually be proficient in English as well. Since a second language is acquired in degrees, it might be reasonable to assume that ELLs would not readily have the same facility for English as a native speaker. Administering the test in English before the ELL student was ready for it would compromise the stated goal of measuring learning as accurately as possible.
3. Learning is transmitted through communication. Due to the unique linguistic characteristic of ELLs, unique strategies, modifications, and instructions need to be used to maximize their capacity to learn concepts and skills. It is futile to assume that ELLs will learn the same way as native speakers of the English language. It follows that education professionals need the specialized training and support to be able to facilitate learning for ELLs.
4. The Language Proficiency Assessment Committee (LPAC) in each campus needs to take a more active role in monitoring the progress of ELLs and devising specific plans to properly respond to the requirements designed specifically for ELLs. They need to undertake a regular evaluation of instruction and curriculum for ELLs and communicate findings and recommendations to all stakeholders – school administrators, teachers, parents and the ELLs.
5. Interventions to improve the situation of ELLs should include specific action plans to devise a more intensive English program in schools and a continued emphasis on quality instruction employing strategies suggested by educational experts who have extensively researched on such courses of action.
Recommendations for Further Study
Based on the results of the study, the researcher recommends the following concerns for further study:
1. A study should be conducted to explore what additional supports are needed to ensure that English language learners will pass high-stakes tests.
2. A study should be conducted to identify what data are needed to make fair high-stakes decisions about English language learners (like subject grades, samples of class work and recommendations of teachers and counselors).
3. A study should be conducted to determine the specific reasons why English language learners scored lowest among student groups on the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills tests in the core areas of English Language Arts and/or Mathematics.
4. A study should be conducted to explore different approaches on school campuses regarding handling of English language learners in terms of instruction, curriculum and other pertinent or related aspects (such as some sort of evaluation - academic, social, financial, etc.) that may guide administrators and teachers to effectively handle English Language learners.
5. A study should be conducted to determine the performance of 10th grade English language learners compared to non-English language learners and non-classified students based on the different objectives of the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills tests in either or both Mathematics and English Language Arts.
6. A study should be conducted to determine the impact of high stakes testing on English language learners as viewed by parents and students.
7. A study should be conducted to explore different instruments to measure academic performance of English language learners.
8. A study should be conducted to determine if there is significant a difference between performance in the different core areas of English language learners belonging to different language groups.
This study affirmed the expected outcome that a significant relationship existed between the percentage of ELLs enrolled in a school and the percentage of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests in both core areas of English Language Arts and Mathematics. The regression analysis predicted that as the percentage of ELLs in a school increased, the performance in the statewide, high-stakes testing in terms of all students passing the 10th grade TAKS tests decreased. The respondents of the study considered the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) as a tool to gauge knowledge in the different core areas. English language learners were expected to have at least average scores on TAKS. There was a difference in the expected and actual results; respondents observed dismal or failing performance of ELLS in the actual results in TAKS. This was evident by the high failure rate of ELLs in their respective schools. Higher dropout rate and lower graduation rate of ELLs were problems encountered due to TAKS. Respondents favored a different test for ELLs, possibly given at a later date after ELLs had studied in the country for at least several years. Respondents believed that interventions were needed to help ELLs perform better. Both the school and the home, together with the community have to be involved in preparing ELLs to be better prepared for their present and future roles in the American society.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
PhD, The University of Iowa
M.Ed., Seattle Pacific University
B.A., Central Washington University
Supreme and District Court Decisions on the Nonrenewal of Professional Personnel Contracts
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this study was to investigate the implications of selected State Supreme and District court decisions rendered across the nation which relate to the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel for reasons of declining enrollment or economic stress from 1911-1974. It was hoped that specific characteristics could be identified that would lead to more efficient school administration based on an understanding and awareness of those historical and philosophical characteristics as established by the courts.
The data collected in this study was primarily historical in nature. A process of legal research called shepardizing was utilized in collecting the data. A total of 38 court cases were identified for the inclusion in the study. Thirty of these were State Supreme Court cases and eight were District Court cases. The source information for all cases was the national Reporter System.
Cases appropriate to the topic of investigation had occurred in 17 states. The distribution of cases among these 17 states varied considerably. Pennsylvania accounted for 12 cases. Iowa accounted for 3. Minnesota accounted for 3. New Jersey, California, Ohio, North Dakota, New Mexico, and North Carolina had two cases each. Kentucky, Missouri, Oregon, Indiana, Alabama, Delaware, Tennessee, and Washington had one case each. The distribution of cases across time showed a marked consistency of frequency by decade. While the period 1911-1920 accounted for only one case, the range for the decades following was from four to eight cases each. Five cases occurred during the period 1971-1976.
Prior to a consideration of the summary of findings and the attendant conclusions that were drawn from the, certain limitations should be carefully noted.
Each court case is different and rests upon its own particular evidence. There were inconsistencies across the nation both with respect to statutes and the interpretations placed on them as these relate to the dismissal of public school personnel for reasons of declining enrollment and economic stress. No cases had occurred in 33 states, and of the thirty-eight cases reported, 18 occurred in three states. When these two facts are viewed together, it is apparent that caution should be exercised with respect to any generalizations that are made. At the same time, court cases do serve as precedents and to some extent past decisions are predictive of the future.
In summarizing the significant authority characteristics that courts seemingly have ascribed to school boards, to employees, and similarly in describing the procedural components to which school executives must give the greatest attention, the following sequence of presentation has been used: first, the generalized characteristics are given. Next, specific examples from various cases are provided to document and illustrate these characteristics. To assist the reader, the case reference and page location for each in the study have been included.
Authority Characteristics of the Board of Education
As viewed by the Courts, School Boards are required to make necessary decisions relative to the allocation of funds for the operation of the schools within their districts. Boards have been forced for reasons of economic stress and/or declining enrollment, to make critical decisions relating to nonrenewal of professional personnel. The Courts recognize that Boards must have discretionary power in order to carry out their function. At the same time Boards are subject to statutory restrictions and must consider these restrictions in making decisions. Specific examples of the Courts’ view on this issue include:
1. The Board is justified in nonrenewal of personnel contracts when it is acting to correct the condition of the school district where evidence indicates the district is financially embarrassed, as long as the Board does not act for any political or arbitrary reason. (Miller v. Stoudnour, p. 71)
2. As long as the Board considers the seniority rights guaranteed to employees under the teachers’ Tenure Act, the Board has the authority to assign teachers, abolish, discontinue, or reorganize a department for financial reasons. (Miller v. Stoudnour, p. 71)
3. The Board has the authority to terminate employees when it is motivated by a reduced school enrollment with consequent reduction in school revenues and by the necessary requirements of economy. (Frank v. Meigs County Board of Education, p. 75)
4. The Board has the authority to terminate an employee and close a school under economic stress. A formal notice to the employee of the discontinuance of the school is a prerequisite to the termination of the teaching contract. If an employee receives no such notice, he is justified in believing that a threatened closing of the schools has been abandoned. (McWithy v. Heart River School District No. 22, p. 103)
5. The Board should recognize the law does not require a school district to retain unneeded employees in one area of education at the expense of not hiring needed employees in another area. (Smith v. Board of School directors of Harmony Area School District, p. 162)
6. As long as the Board acts in good faith to cope with financial problems of the school district, the Board has the authority to dispense with the services of employees selected from the entire district. (Wall v. Stanly County Board of Education, p. 145)
7. Where there is a significant decrease in student population reflected in the principal area of a tenured employee’s teaching responsibilities, the Board may assign the subjects previously taught by the employee to others in the district who are certified as being qualified to teach the subjects. The Board must act for the total benefit of the district in eliminating a teaching position. (Flannery v. Jenkins Township School Directors, p. 96; Butler v. Wilkes-Barre Twp. School District, p. 99)
8. The Board may suspend the necessary number of employees where a curtailment or alteration of the educational program seems warranted by reduced enrollment provided the concurrence of appropriate officials is obtained. (Paden v. Lake-Noxen School District, p. 115)
9. The Board may adopt rules, regulations and bylaws for management of the public schools and for the employment of teachers. (Downs v. Board of Education of Hoboken District, p. 48)
10. The Board has the authority to define teaching assignments for purposes of contractual relationships along a more restricted range than that commonly covered by certification. (Walker v. School District of the City of Scranton, p. 124)
11. The Board’s control of the courses of study encompasses the authority to substitute one offering for another even though in doing so a teacher’s position is eliminated. (Walker v. School District of the City of Scranton, p. 124)
12. Where a Board’s exercise of authority is based on a specific statute, it generally will be upheld. (Wheatly v. Division Board of Education of Hancock County, p. 19)
Authority Characteristics or Right of Employees
As viewed by the Courts, employees do have rights which should be considered when staff reduction is being contemplated. These rights vary with the statutes existent in the several states. Employees protected by a teachers’ tenure act and seniority provisions have definite guaranteed employment rights over those not protected. Where a reduction in teaching force is caused by declining enrollment or economic stress and employees are not protected by statute, school executives are free to recommend termination of employee contracts in complete disregard to previous experience in the district or education preparation. More importantly, the Board may use its discretion in selecting employees for nonrenewal at the least expense to taxpayers. In some instances the courts have indicated that seniority rights of professional personnel are considered to extend across grade levels and in others they have limited the range covered by seniority rights. Seniority is usually considered in relation to certification; however, definitions of classification vary and the courts have been inconsistent with respect to definition when this issue is left to their interpretation. Different authority characteristics have been ascribed to employees in relation to classification for purposes of the exercise of seniority rights. Examples of the Courts’ view in regard to employment, tenure, and seniority rights include:
1. The purpose of any teachers’ tenure act is to secure permanence within the teaching profession. (Watson v. Burnett, p. 57)
2. An employee protected by tenure and seniority rights is assured a permanent position unless employment is suspended or terminated in accordance with the provisions established with a teachers’ tenure act. (Bragg v. School District of Swarthmore, p. 64; Munley v. School District of City of Pittston, p. 81)
3. Employees protected by tenure and seniority cannot have their rights violated by the Board in favor of an employee junior in tenure. (Flannery v. Jenkins Township School Directors, p. 96)
4. Consideration must be given to the seniority rights guaranteed to employees when interpreting or applying a teachers’ tenure act to the prevailing situation when making recommendations for termination of contracts. (Watson v. Burnett, p. 57; Munley v. School District of City of Pittston, p. 81)
5. An employee may not be deprived of tenure rights by the simple abolishment of a class of students. (Seidel v. Board of Education of Ventnor City, p. 39)
6. In terminating an employee protected by tenure and seniority rights, it is necessary to show affirmatively there is no position available for which the employee is qualified to teach (Swisher v. Daren, p. 117)
7. An employee protected by tenure cannot be dismissed while at the same time a non-tenured employee is retained to teach in the principal area of professional competence. (Board of School Trustee v. O’Brien, p. 132)
8. In general, no permanent employee protected by tenure can be terminated while a probationary employee or any other employee with less seniority is retained to render a service which a permanent employee is certificated to render. (Unruh v. Piedmont High School District, p. 53)
9. Where there is a reduction in the teaching force the first consideration should be retention of those employees with the longest years of service by the method of realigning the staff. (Welsko v. School Board, p. 121)
10. Non-tenured employees in a given building are entitled to have their qualifications compared with all non-tenured employees in the district before being discharged. (Rolfe v. County Board of Education, p. 149)
11. Certification is important as it relates to the grouping of employees for seniority purposes. (Jordahl v. Independent School District No. 129, p. 165)
12. Where employees have been assigned to the teaching of the primary grades for a period sufficient to establish tenure rights, they should have priority over employees from the intermediate school grades although the tenure rights of each are the same. (Ging v. Board of Education of Duluth, p. 84)
13. Where an employee with seniority rights protected by tenure becomes certified in a different area, he is entitled to “bump” another with less seniority even though the person with less seniority had actually held the specific certification over a longer period. (Flannery v. Jenkins Township School Directors, p. 96)
14. Where a unique local plan for appointment of employees to specific teaching assignments does not exist, employees are entitled to positions in accordance with their certification, qualifications, and seniority. (Flannery v. Jenkins Township School Directors, p. 96; Caperelli v. School District of the Borough of Winston, p. 108; Welsko v. School Board, p. 121)
15. Where a district has described in advance a limited grade assignment range covered by the individual contract, the court will uphold that description. (Walker v. School District of the City of Scranton, p. 124)
Courts have been strictly enforcing constitutional safeguards guaranteed to professional personnel of racial minority groups. The authority characteristics ascribed to racial minorities include:
1. Definite objective standards for the employment and retention of employees must be established and applied to all employees alike regardless of racial origin and in a manner compatible with the requirements of the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Constitution. (Chambers v. Hendersonville City Board of Education, p. 139)
2. Where employees are displaced from formerly racially homogeneous schools, they must be judged by definite objective standards applied to all employees in the system as a basis for determining who will have continued employment. (Wall v. Stanly County Board of Education, p. 145)
An employee serving in an administrative capacity often maintains particular advantages. According to court decision they include:
1, An employee’s long experience in a purely administrative capacity does not always disqualify him from teaching in the school system and fulfilling the responsibilities of a subordinate employee. (Davidson v. Board of Education of the City School District of East Cleveland, p. 90)
2. If a school executive is linked to the teacher’s salary index with additional compensation for administrative responsibilities, seniority rights as a teacher may be retained. (Davidson v. Board of Education of the City School District of East Cleveland, p. 90)
Procedural Components School Executives Must Give the Greatest Attention
The Courts view procedural matters as very crucial in nonrenewal of employee contracts for reasons of declining enrollment or economic stress. Procedures outlined with statutes must be followed, and any deviation tends to be interpreted as a violation of due process. School executives must be specific in their recommendations to the Board, taking into consideration the guaranteed protections afforded employees protected by tenure laws and seniority rights and any and all other statutory provisions. As indicated by court decisions, procedural components to which school executives must give the greatest attention when implementing a staff reduction decision include:
1. School executives must recognize that in procedural matters, notification to the employee of the termination of his contract must cover more than the fact of nonrenewal. Notification must fully inform the employee of the criteria used for selecting employees for nonrenewal so that if grounds for appeal exist, the employee will be alerted. (Thayer v. Anacortes School District, p. 157)
2. Where nonrenewal of teaching contracts is apparent, school executives must be specific, detailed, exact, and concise concerning cause of termination, taking into immediate consideration any tenure act, seniority rights, and other stipulations in accordance with the law. (Bragg v. School District of Swarthmore, p. 64)
3. School executive should realize that any procedure utilized to terminate employee such as the National Teacher Examination must be universally applied if it is going to constitute justification. (Chambers v. Hendersonville city Board of Education, p. 139)
4. Where there is a reduction in teaching force, school executives should realign teaching assignments for the retention of those employees protected by tenure, seniority rights, and longest years of service. (Caperelli v. School District of the Borough of Winston, p. 108; Welsko v. School Board, p. 121)
5. School executives should recognize the importance of state certification as it relates to the grouping of employees for seniority purposes. (Jordahl v. Independent School District No. 129, p. 165)
6. Where the cause of the employee’s nonrenewal is not personal, it does not always require a strict adherence to procedures as prescribed by statute. (Funston v. District School Board for School District No. 1, p. 31)
7. School executives must recognize the importance of a given statute in relation to procedure. Where specific restrictions and dates are included within statutes, any deviation tends to be interpreted as a violation of procedure. Courts will support procedure as stated. (Linden School District No. 24 v. Porter, p. 134; James v. School Township of Troy, p. 36; Ashby v. School Township of Liberty, p. 127)
8. School executives must recognize the fact that there are obvious inconsistencies among state laws relating to nonrenewal of contracts, seniority, and tenure rights, and these differences should always be considered when implementing a staff reduction decision. (Board of School Trustees v. O’Brien, p. 132)
9. School executives must set up definite objective standards for the employment and retention of employees and apply them equally to all regardless of racial origin, and in a manner compatible with the requirements of Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Constitution. (Chambers v. Hendersonville City Board of Education, p. 139)
Conclusions
Should a school district not comply with the legal requirements in the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel contracts for reasons of declining enrollment or economic stress, the nonrenewal may be held ineffective, as is generally indicated by court decisions. School boards and school executives should realize that the courts have been strictly interpreting the procedures of termination statutes as having been enacted for the protection of the employee, and the validity of a nonrenewal action will depend upon full compliance with the law.
Each court case decision is different and rests upon its own particular evidence. There are inconsistencies across the nation relating to dismissal of public school personnel and persons reading court decisions involving termination of employees must bear this important fact in mind. Because the circumstances of each decision differ, it is recommended that school executives and board members confer with legal counsel on any contemplated nonrenewal for reasons of declining enrollment or economic stress.
Where a board of education gives notice that it is considering the nonrenewal of an employee’s contract, the Board should have specific reasons and specific evidence that will support those reasons for not renewing the contract. School executives should discuss with legal counsel all pertinent material from the employee’s file and the prevailing declining enrollment or economic stress situation. It is highly recommended that school executives prepare a memorandum an evaluation of the facts surrounding the nonrenewal and the reasons for its recommendation. All policies of the school district relating specifically to nonrenewals, terminations, grievance procedures, dismissals or any other policy relating to staff reduction should be reviewed and listed as part of the notification memorandum to serve as a reminder during the process of nonrenewal.
If the reasons for the nonrenewal are declining enrollment or economic stress, these reasons should be given. If there are other reasons, they should be carefully considered and be supported with facts. Declining enrollment should not be used as a pretext to terminate an incompetent employee.
Boards should be prepared to defend the reasons given for nonrenewal of employee contracts and should be aware that the burden is placed on the Board to sustain the reasons which are given for dismissal.
School executives should be certain there is nothing in the record which would give rise to a claim that the employee is being nonrenewed for impermissible constitutional reasons, and that the reasons for the nonrenewal are not arbitrary, capricious, or based on unsupported conclusions.
Where there is a substantial decline in enrollment or economic stress, the School Board has the duty of running the best possible school district with the least expense to the taxpayers and in the most efficient manner. The Board may determine that it can only afford so many supervisors, so many school executives, so many teachers, or so many other personnel. If the Board finds it advisable to make a reduction in number of personnel, the Board has the authority to do so but it must adhere to legal restrictions and stipulations imposed by statute.
It is a fact that employees protected by a teachers’ tenure act and seniority provisions have definite guaranteed employment advantages over those not protected by tenure. From the standpoint of employed teachers, their organizations would be well advised to strive to develop tenure laws for the protection of public school professional personnel.
State and District courts across the nation have rendered many decisions relating to educational statutory concerns. An attempt has been made to investigate the implications of these decisions as they relate specifically to declining enrollment or economic stress from 1911-1974. It is hoped that specific characteristics have been identified that will lead to more efficient school administration based on an understanding and awareness of characteristics as established by the courts in the past. Certainly, one conclusion that cannot be avoided is that greater consistency from state to state is needed if Boards are to function with maximum efficiency and all teachers are to receive equal treatment under the law.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Termination of Professional Employee Contracts
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF STUDY
The baby boom of the 1950s was a hectic time for school people. Expansion was the period’s chief characteristic. New schools became crowded with children before they were finished. School officials worked hard at passing bond issues, building more schools, and finding teachers for them.
At the time of this historical and philosophical analysis, instead of crowded classrooms, school executives across the nation were facing declining public school enrollments and economic stress.
The National Center for Education Statistics (1975) reports nationwide enrollment in public schools grew from 25.1 million in 1950 to 45.9 million in 1970, an increase of about 83 percent. Peak enrollment was 46.1 million in 1971. Since then, the enrollment has slipped to about 45 million, and was expected to fall to 40.5 million by 1981.
Sargent (1975) predicted enrollment figures at both the elementary and secondary levels would decline together and the full impact of declining enrollments will continue at an accelerated pace through at least 1980. Sargent summarized what the school population would be after 1980 is a matter of conjecture. Some projections yield results for 1995 ranged from a high of 61.5 million students to a low of 49 million. But all projections given agreed on about the same low point of 47 million.
Iowa’s Department of Public Instruction (1975) estimated public school enrollments at 608,327 for the 1975-76 school year, 591,976 for 1976-77, 577,256 for 1977-78, 560,175 for 1978-79, and 539,800 for 1979-80. Iowa’s peak enrollment of 659,888 students occurred in the fall of 1969.
The United States Office of Education (1975) reported public school enrollment in the nation’s 48 largest cities decreased overall by 500,000 students between 1971 and 1973 — from 7.3 million students to 6.8 million. All indications pointed to a further decline of public school enrollments.
Educators across the nation felt the decreasing numbers of students should be viewed as an opportunity to reduce the pupil-teacher classroom ratio so the quality of education could be improved. Instead, financially pressed school boards were being forced to reduce their public school professional personnel.
There were fewer positions available for public school professional personnel across the nation because school districts were reducing personnel due to declining public school enrollments or economic stress. School boards were using staff reduction to cope with financial problems. This tactic was working at cross purposes with teachers who wanted to keep classes small. Conflicts were inevitable.
The nonrenewal of public school professional personnel contracts for reasons of declining enrollments or economic stress created many problems in the field of education. Court action appeared to be an available alternative for public school professional personnel and school districts in assuring equal protection under the law.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the implications of State Supreme and District Court decisions which have been rendered across the nation relating specifically to the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel due to the declining school enrollments or economic stress. It was hoped that specific characteristics of these decisions could be identified that would prove of assistance to boards, school administrators, and teachers. More specifically, the following questions were examined:
1. In cases involving the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel contracts for reasons of declining enrollments or economic stress, what are the authority characteristics ascribed to school boards as indicated by court decisions?
2. In cases involving the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel contracts for reasons of declining enrollments or economic stress, what are the authority characteristics or rights ascribed to employees as indicated by court decisions?
3. In cases involving the nonreneal of pubic school professional personnel contracts for reasons of declining enrollments or economic stress, what are the procedural components to which school executives must give the greatest attention when implementing a staff reduction decision as indicated by court decisions?
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Termination of Professional Employee Contracts
Chapter II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The purpose of this study was to investigate the implications of State Supreme Court and District Court decisions which have been rendered across the nation relating specifically to the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel due to the declining school enrollments or economic stress from 1911-1974. It was hoped that specific characteristics could be identified that would lead to more efficient school administration based on an understanding and awareness of characteristics as established by the courts.
A review of doctoral dissertation abstracts, periodicals, and texts yielded no studies of characteristics of court decisions relating specifically to the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel contracts for reasons of declining enrollments or economic stress from 1911-1974. However, over time, this area has continually been the subject of analysis in the literature. Following the presentation of a summary of state statutes that was reported by the National Education Association (1970), the review of literature is organized in chronological order to provide an overview of developments in the area of due process as related to teachers, boards of education, and school executives during this time period.
Though grounds for dismissal generally have become less arbitrary, this is not to say the hands of educational management are completely tied. The latitude that existed in most states at the elementary and secondary level for dismissing teachers or denying them tenure was considerable. The National Education Association (1970) summarized 143 court decisions with legal issues of particular importance to teachers. The materials came from judicial decisions published during the 1970 calendar year in the National Reporter System. While most of the decisions summarized were rendered in 1970, cases decided earlier were included. According to the summary, thirty-eight states had statewide tenure laws (that is, with some exceptions), and five had tenure only in particular areas. It was reported that Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Utah, and Vermont had no tenure laws of any kind, though most of them did require contracts and did permit long-term contracts.
Within these tenure laws there existed a variety of reasons for dismissing teachers or withdrawing their tenure. According to the NEA summary, sixteen states denied tenure to teachers after a certain age; in most cases it was 65, but in two states it was 70 and in two others it was 62. Alaska provided that tenure is lost when employment in a district was interrupted or terminated. Florida provided that any employee could be returned to an annual contract for three years for cause. It was reported that twenty states had penalties, usually loss of certification, for resignation in the middle of the year or for refusal to teach.
According to the summary, inadequate professional character had led to dismissal. Failure to maintain discipline and inefficient management was a cause in two states; and unprofessional conduct, conduct becoming a teacher, and disreputable conduct were a cause in three others. Iowa allowed dismissal for teachers who had shown “partiality.” Failure to make professional advancement or professional growth was a cause in four states and communities. Maine had a provision for dismissing teachers who were shown to be unfit or whose service was “unprofitable” to the school system. Cruelty or brutal treatment were causes for dismissal in five states. Any causes which were grounds for loss of a teaching certificate also were grounds for dismissal in Nevada. In addition, medical reasons, lack of a medical or physical examination, and communicable diseases were causes for dismissal in four states.
The NEA summary reported that California led the states in provisions for dismissing teachers for criminal syndicalism, membership in the Communist Party, teaching to indoctrinate in Communism, or refusing to answer questions about Communism. Four other states had similar provisions for disloyalty, teaching disloyalty, advocating the overthrow of state or federal governments, and unAmerican activities. Crime was a cause for dismissal in two states. In Louisiana, membership in or contributions to an organization declared illegal or enjoined from operating in the state could lead to dismissal.
Of course, the statutes were not devoted entirely to restrictions on teachers. Many spelled out protections as well. For example, political or personal reasons could not be used for dismissal in Alabama, and there could be no dismissal for exercising constitutionally protected rights in DeKalb and Fulton counties in the state of Georgia. Marriage explicitly is said not to be a cause in three states, although at the time of the summary Waterbury, Connecticut, still had a provision whereby women teachers may be dismissed for marriage. In Massachusetts a teacher could not be dismissed for exercising voting rights, signing nomination papers, petitioning the general court, or appearing before a legislative committee, unless such things were done on school premises, during school hours, or when interfering with school duty. On the other hand, Missouri teachers could not manage campaigns for the election or defeat of school board members in districts in which they were employed. In larger cities in New York over 125,000 population, no charges could be brought against a teacher for incidents that were more than three years old, except where the misconduct constituted a crime.
There also was a variety of professional protections mentioned in the NEA summary. No teacher could be dismissed in Pennsylvania unless efficiency ratings had been kept by the school board. In Chicago, if charges against teachers were for causes that were remediable, the teacher must have been given warning that the charges would be brought if the causes were not removed. Though school boards in Virginia had the right to dismiss both tenured and non-tenured teachers because of enrollment decreases or subject cancellations, in Colorado no teacher’s salary could be reduced for budgetary reasons unless there was a general reduction in all salaries in the district. In Oregon a tenured teacher could not be made part-time without consent.
The summary pointed out that an equal variety of vague, catch-all, and special causes still existed. Though dismissal was provided for, no causes for dismissal were listed in the laws of three states. In Illinois, no causes were listed for dismissal in smaller communities (less than 500,000 population). It was reported there were still vestiges of local morality in some state laws like Florida that had a prohibition against drunkenness, and Louisiana which provided for dismissal of teachers who advocate integration.
Generally, one might expect probationary teachers to be judged by the same criteria, for probation is claimed to be necessary as a time in which the teacher is expected to demonstrate the talents and conduct expected of permanent professional employees. The Wyoming statutes did say that probationary teachers are subject to the same causes for dismissal as were tenured teachers. Massachusetts laws provided due process rights for most probationary teachers. Iowa, which had no probationary requirement, provided for automatic renewal of all contracts after a certain date an due process rights for any teacher not retained. The NEA summary noted that generally probationary teachers were dismissed for the same or similar reasons as tenured teachers.
According to the NEA summary, some states did have different or additional causes for probationary teacher dismissal. Probationary teachers in Texas, for example, could be dismissed for willful failure to pay debts or for the use of drugs or alcohol.
The summary also hints at the history of why teachers have been dismissed or have had to fear dismissal. That is, the information bears, if indirectly, on why and how tenure was developed. Not a great deal of systematic history has been written about tenure and much of the current criticism of tenure still overlooks the historical perspective. It is beyond the scope of this review of related literature to delve deeply into the historical background of tenure; however, the tenure concept does appear with considerable frequency throughout the literature pertaining to staff reduction.
The above review of the National Education Association summary shows several things. One is that there was little basis for the belief that adequate provisions do not exist for removing “unproductive” teachers. Numerous causes were set out in most states, and in other states the causes were general enough to cover almost any eventuality.
A more adequate perspective of the findings of the National Education Association summary may be gained by considering past studies and reports dealing with the issue of teacher reduction and termination.
Beale (1936) noted a study done in Indiana in the early 1930's that concluded that on the whole superintendents are not handicapped in their work by tenure. Where initiative is taken and cases are well prepared, there is no reason to believe marginal teachers cannot be dismissed. Beale believed that administrators opposed tenure because it decreased their authority.
Wriston (1940) reported that the real protection of poor teaching is not tenure, but lack of administrative skill or courage. This is in reference, according to the author, to the inept way in which teacher dismissals are handled, but other critics indict administration for other reasons as well.
Beale (1941) gave a review of the legal precedents relating to elementary and secondary teaching as late as the 1930's. Again one must be cautious when speaking about “the courts.” But Beale showed that in a variety of places and over a period of time court decisions have become important where the law is silent or ambiguous. For example, some courts have held that dismissals are limited to announced causes, causes cannot be added after employment, and boards are bound by their own rules and regulations; tenured teachers have protections when schools are closed for economic reasons or declining enrollment, and tenured teachers cannot be demoted; teachers cannot be dismissed for marriage, and hearings must be held even if no law calls for them; new charges cannot be introduced in mid-trial; and teachers dismissed without a hearing must be reinstated and cannot be charged for the same cause later.
Hofstadter and Metzger (1955) commented that in reading the reports of the AAUP Bulletin, it led one to believe that administrative, not teacher, incompetence is the unsolved problem of academic life.
Byse and Joughin (1959) noted the following causes for dismissal in higher education: “cause” or “good cause”, professional incompetence; immorality; crime, including treason; incapacity or disability; grounds stated in the American Association of University Professors “1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure, “ failure in the institutional relationships, disloyalty, and lack of cooperation. The authors expressed that provisions for dismissing teachers were added or changed every year. They pointed out that it was proposed in Florida in 1968, though not implemented, that striking teachers should have psychiatric examinations before they were allowed to return to the classrooms. The discretion in dismissing non-tenured teachers was not limited either. Some persons argue that tenure contributes to greater competence. Byse and Joughin quote from an early Kansas legal case in 1878 in which the judge held that “The shorter and more precarious the tenure in office, the less attractive, important, and valuable it would be; and generally, men of only inferior talent could be found to accept it or to perform its functions with such a precarious tenure.” Courts have helped to develop the idea of tenure. The authors quote Robert Hutchins’ widely accepted thesis that the law is not basic to the protection of academic freedom and tenure, which are, rather, protected by those in society who make decisions about the purpose of education. But they also quote the view of Russell Kirk that “The courts, when all is said, remain the chief defense of academic freedom when a right to tenure...can be proved.” The history of tenure seems to give weight to the latter view, though there is a sense in which the law is poor protection—because it is the last protection—of any right. Byse and Joughin analyze a long line of legal cases relating to the acquisition of tenure and the criteria and procedure for termination of tenure. They emphasize that it is hazardous to generalize about the positions courts have taken on tenure: the precedents go back far into history, there is no single entity which constitutes “the courts” because the points of law may differ subtly, opinions differ, change, and often contradict. Nevertheless, the authors conclude that generally legal enforcement strengthens tenure, though the need for independent judicial review will be diminished to the extent tenure plans give final power for deciding cases to faculty and provide procedural safeguards.
Byse and Joughin (1959) also spell out the elements of due process. Due process, they say, is a well-established part of the American legal tradition; it is based on the principle that “the accused is entitled to know the case against him, to confront and cross-examine adverse witnesses, and to present evidence and argument to an unbiased tribunal.” They noted that institutions frequently qualified “cause” by adding “good,” “adequate,” "grave,” “just,” “justifiable,” or “sufficient.” Furthermore, the causes can be explicit. “Incapacity” might be physical and mental, and it can include incompetence or failure to perform duties; “immorality” might include sexual relations, especially with students, the use of profanity, or conviction of a crime; “financial exigencies” might result from economic stress, termination of a course of study, or budgetary cutbacks. Financial exigency provides a good example of how causes for dismissal can be limited. It has been established by the courts that dismissal for this reason should be a last resort and, if made, should carry certain rights with them, such as the right to be rehired first.
Atty (1964) pointed out the problems some probationary teachers face. In Pennsylvania the school code set out the legal causes for dismissal of teachers. One requirement for tenure was two years of successful teaching. Thus, a teacher who was rated low in those years could not attain tenure. Atty noted that the causes of probationary teachers’ failure to attain tenure differed substantially from enumerated causes for dismissal; 98.1% were dismissed for reasons other than those outlined in the school code.
Duvall (1966) found that a high proportion of superintendents believed tenure interferes with the proper power of superintendents and boards of education. Duvall notes that principals and superintendents believe tenure makes it impossible to discharge unsatisfactory teachers, reduces incentive toward in-service improvement and attendance at summer school, and requires greater supervision of teachers. Teachers, on the other hand, believe tenure makes teaching more professional, reduces resignations, encourages self-expression, creates incentives to work on personnel policies and problems, and improves community-teacher relationship.
Credell (1967) surveyed 773 school districts in California and concluded that administrators were not implementing the provisions of the tenure laws regarding retention or dismissal. He found also that many schools do not have observable standards for behavior, competence, or dismissals, and they are at a disadvantage because of this.
Bement (1967) found that though principals identified “marginal” tenured teachers, no dismissals or other steps were taken under the tenure statute. Teachers who did not improve were invited to leave or were put in other positions, but if they did not go, no further steps were taken. Principals tended to deal with problem teachers themselves, rather than using special resources such as psychologists, medical person, and counselors. Bement noted that of 97 marginal tenured teachers that were identified by principals, 26 improved as a result of advising, but 26 others left the schools, probably because they were asked to do so if they did not improve. Bement, like Credell, found that most schools do not have observable standards for behavior, compentence, or dismissals.
Takata (1971) noted that dismissing any teacher for incompetence would be difficult unless the school is administered on a sound educational philosophy and unless current research results are available to assist in the documentation of variations in student performance as a resultant of variations in teachers behavior.
Gutherie (1971) reviewed 17 studies that dealt with the effectiveness of school service components. They showed that 14 studies found various teacher characteristics, among which was employment status (tenure or non-tenure), to be significantly associated with one or more measures of pupil performance. Specifically, in the Atlanta schools it was found that low teacher turnover had a positive relationship with gains on pupil scores on tests of verbal ability. In the Boston schools it was found that the percentage of permanent teachers had a minor but positive effect on all outputs and that the turnover rate within attendance districts had a slight negative relationship with all output measures.
Others point out that tenure has value because it requires schools to judge the worth of teachers. In the past some teachers commonly have been allowed to remain in their jobs indefinitely without being evaluated. In higher education there is considerable criticism of the “up or out” system, in which an individual either is given tenure after a probationary period or a judgment of competence or he must seek a position elsewhere. Silber (1971) believes this kind of tenure forces judgements too early in the careers of young professors, and thus can contribute to lower teaching quality. But according to the AAUP Bulletin (1972), the “up or out” system was designed originally to prevent the continuation of teachers for long and indefinite periods without their competency being determined.
Anyone who has taught for very long knows that school boards and administrators have a number of ways to get rid of a teacher short of a dramatic public trail. “Counseling out” is a device frequently employed by school executives to get rid of tenured teachers. It is very difficult to get accurate figures on tenured teachers who are dismissed; the reasons being that, in most cases. The superintendent or his designee calls the teachers in for a conference in which he indicates the intention is to recommend formal charges be brought under the law. In most cases, the teacher resigns rather than face a hearing before the Board. The American Association of University Professor Bulletin (1971) also reported the practice is common in higher education also. It was pointed out that over 50 professors had resigned quietly in the past five years rather than have charges publicly filed against them for not adequately fulfilling their position responsibilities.
Sherman (1973) emphasized that where there is not tenure, the implication for contractual agreements is important. Courts have held that contracts cannot be invalidated on a technicality; contracts cannot contain provisions for periodic annulment; a contract made with one board cannot be rescinded by another board or by subsequent legislation; the teacher cannot be required to do work other than that called for in the contract; salaries must be paid for the contract period even when schools are closed or reorganized for financial reasons; and, oral contracts are binding where written ones are not required.
Skarda (1973), in his study of the common law for Iowa schools, summarized Iowa Supreme Court cases involving school districts. His conclusions were that issues settled by the Supreme Court of Iowa are generally considered final in legal practice and that they should be known to those administering educational programs. The author emphasized that court judges review the decisions of other State Supreme Courts prior to final action relative to a given case. Skarda investigated other studies and publications which were similar to his study of court decisions. Parallel findings were evident even though the authors had conducted their investigations in other states across the nation. He reported that in no instance was any study devoted totally to State Supreme Court decisions of the various states on a national basis.
Thurston (1975), in a study conducted at the University of Iowa, reported that the general area of faculty dismissals had been the battleground for considerable litigation. The study attempted to synthesize faculty dismissals in higher education and to state the general principles of constitutional law which have developed in this area. He pointed out that constitutional due process is required whenever a person is deprived of liberty or property interest. Consequently, procedural safeguards are necessary upon a faculty member’s dismissal in the middle of an academic year or upon the nonrenewal of a tenured faculty member’s contract.
Hazard (1975) reported that over two decades state and federal courts have exercised increasing influences on school policy making and, by preemption, have taken the policy-making play away from local boards with respect to many important issues. In particular, the application of law to school conflict has changed perceptions of the role of the school board in policy making. He further contends that school board decisions are rarely accepted these days as the last word; more and more, citizens regard them as the trigger for legal confrontations. In other words, schooling is no longer regarded as a take-it-or-leave-it proposition but is viewed, along with policies supporting it, as an offer negotiable in court. As a result, educational policies are the product of constitutional, statutory, and case-law interpretations. Hazard also reported that the scope of judicial review of educational policy is practically unlimited. While it is generally true that the courts are reluctant to intervene in school board judgements except in clear case of abuse, the range of policies reviewed by the courts is broad. Indeed, policy content reviewed by the courts had included the obvious human concerns embraced in the First, Fourth, and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, as well as the entire range of constitutional aspects of school finance, curriculum mandates, pupil personnel practices, teacher contracts, and property interest of citizens affected by school operations. In recent years the courts have moved decisively into the area of pupil rights, teacher rights, and that vast area called “equal protection of the law.” Hazard expressed that one could argue that court decisions are more than judicial solutions to school-based problems or legal interpretations of board policies; rather, they make new policy.
Financially pressured school boards are being forced to reduce the number of school professional employees. Because there are fewer positions available in education due to declining enrollment, economic stress, or a combination thereof, school boards are using staff reduction to cope with financial problems. This tactic is working against teachers who want to keep the pupil-teacher ratio low. Conflicts are inevitable between public school professional personnel, school executives, and school boards. Court action appears to be an available alternative for public school professional personnel and school districts in assuring equal protection under the law.
In reviewing related literature it appears that dismissal cases involving public school professional personnel has been the subject of continued analysis. At this particular point in time, there have been no attempts to investigate selected State Supreme and District Court decisions from 1911-1974 which have been rendered across the nation relating specifically to the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel contracts for reasons of declining enrollment or economic stress for the purpose of determining and identifying any patterns which may have been developing. Conflicts are inevitable between public school professional personnel, school executives, and school boards. Court action appears to be an available alternative for public school professional personnel and school districts in assuring equal protection under the law.
In reviewing related literature it appears that dismissal cases involving public school professional personnel has been the subject of continued analysis. This study will attempt to investigate selected State Supreme and District Court decisions which have been rendered across the nation relating specifically to the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel contracts for reasons of declining enrollment or economic stress for the purpose of determining and identifying any patterns which may have been developing from 1911-1974.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Termination of Professional Employee Contracts
Chapter III
PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES USED IN THE INVESTIGATION
The purpose of this study was to investigate selected State Supreme and District Court decisions which have been rendered across the nation relating specifically to the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel due to declining school enrollments or economic stress from 1911-1974. Specifically, the following questions were examined:
1. In cases involving the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel contracts for reasons of declining enrollments or economic stress, what are the authority characteristics ascribed to school boards as indicated by court decisions?
2. In cases involving the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel contracts for reasons of declining enrollments or economic stress, what are the authority characteristics or rights ascribed to employees as indicated by court decisions?
3. In cases involving the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel contracts for reasons of declining enrollments or economic stress, what are the procedural components to which school executives must give the greatest attention when implementing a staff reduction decision as indicated by court decisions?
The research described in this study is primarily historical. All court decisions were reviewed in the College of Law on the campus of The University of Iowa and the Law Center at Louisiana State University at Baton Rouge. In addition, the writer had collected informational items relating specifically to the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel due to declining school enrollments or economic stress since June 1971 that covered the time period from 1911-1974.
The court case decisions that were examined were contained in the national Reporter System in the library of the College of Law. The Reporters were: North Western, pacific, North Eastern, Atlantic, South Western, Southern, South Eastern, The Supreme Court Reporter, Federal Reporter, Federal Supplement, Iowa Reports, Ohio Abstracts, Lackawanna Jurist, and Luzerne Legal Register. In many instances, State District Reporters were examined so the researcher could investigate a pertinent related decision which had not been significant enough to be included in the National Reporter System.
A court citation of a case is generally listed as follows: Welko v. School Board, 119 A.2d 43. The 119 is the volume number, A. is the abbreviation of the Atlantic Reporter, 2d refers to the second series, and 43 is the page number where the court case beings.
A process of legal research called shepardizing was employed on all final selected State Supreme and District Court decisions. This technique enabled the writer to examine and investigate other court cases that had made specific reference to final selected court decisions. Where shepardizing led to a citation of other court cases, those specific cases were examined and also shepardized. Although laborious, any case that was cited during the data was shepardized, to the point that the final selected court decisions were making cross references. Statutes appearing before and after each court case were obtained through cross referencing by either beginning with the revised statute or starting with the earliest statute and working forward, backwards, or both until arriving at the exact statute which was relevant to the year and month of the case. A large number of court cases, their statutes, and decisions were reviewed and examined. From those court cases and their decisions, 38 court decisions were selected that dealt specifically with the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel due to declining school enrollments or economic stress. Of those 38 court cases, 30 are State Supreme Court decisions, 8 are District Court decisions.
A decision was reached to prepare seven major items of information from each court case: (1) Statute(s) appropriate to case, (2) Overview of the case, (3) Issue, (4) Characteristics of the decision, (5) Significant points, (6) Revised statue, and (7) Implications for education. It should be noted that the information in the discussions such as “Overview, Issue, Decision, Characteristics, Significant points” was developed from the writer’s reading of court cases as cited. An example of a case briefing for Welsko v. School Board, 119 A.2d 43 Pennsylvania (1956) is presented below:
Welsko v. School Board, 119 A.2d 43
Pennsylvania (1956)
Statue appropriate to case
Source - Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, page 532.
11-1125 (b) suspensions and reinstatements, how made. In cases in which suspensions are to be made, professional employees shall be retained on the basis seniority rights, acquired within the school district of current employment, where no differences in rating are found. Seniority rights shall also prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating. In cases where there are substantial differences in rating of those under consideration for suspension, seniority shall be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in the rating cards. Where there is a merger, jointure or union district formed, all professional employees shall retain the seniority rights they had at the time of such merger, jointure of union.
Overview
A teacher taught in the elementary grades within the school district from September 1916 to June, 1926, and then taught in the high school from September 1, 1934 to June 9, 1952, when he was suspended because of a decrease in pupil enrollment. The teacher brought legal action against the Board, stipulating that while the School Board was justified in reducing the teaching staff on account of the District’s financial condition, it was not warranted in suspending him in favor of five other retained teachers with less seniority rights than his.
Issue
Can a school board suspend a teacher having seniority on account of the financial condition of the school district, while retaining teachers with less years of service?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
The School Board did not contest the general principle of seniority rights but asserted that although five of the retained teachers had less years of service than the dismissed teacher, they taught subjects for which the dismissed teacher was not qualified to teach. In this connection, the dismissed teacher admits that three of those teachers taught subjects for which there were no other certified teachers available and, consequently, could not be replaced. The dismissed teacher argued, however, that the subjects taught by two of the retained teachers, could be taught by other teachers on the teaching staff, and that, therefore, they should have been suspended prior to him.
The court was specific in its opinion that where a reduction in teaching staff is called for, the Board’s first consideration should be how to retain those teachers with the longest years of service by realigning the staff so that the remaining teachers, after the reduction has been implemented, can teach the subjects of those who, because of lesser seniority rights, have been suspended. Also, the court pointed out the very stability of our schools depends on retaining those teachers who because of long years of experience and devotion have earned the obedience of the pupils, the admiration of the parents, and the respect of the community. The court emphasized that it was not the intent of the Legislature to impose the Tenure Act so as to interfere with the control of school policy and courses of study selected by the administrative bodies. But if seniority rights of teachers could be circumvented by the expedient of reassigning teachers so that there would be no teachers with less continuous years of service teaching subjects which the suspended teacher was qualified to teach, obvious inequities would result, as happened in this case.
Significant points
1. Where a reduction in teaching staff is called for, the Board’s first consideration should be how to retain those teachers with the longest years of service by realigning the staff so that the remaining teachers, after the reduction has been implemented, can teach the subjects of those who, because of lesser seniority rights, have been suspended.
2. Although laborious, the administration should realign the teaching staff in such a way so that the remaining teacher, after the reduction has been implemented, can teach the subjects of those who have been suspended.
3. The very stability of our schools depends on retaining those teachers who because of long years of experience and devotion have earned the obedience of the pupils, the admiration of the parents, and the respect of the community.
Revised statue
Source - Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, Pocket Part, 1975-1976, page 123.
11-1124 (b) Suspensions and reinstatements, how made. In cases in which suspensions are to be made, professional employees shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights, acquired within the school district of current employment, where no differences in rating are found. Seniority rights shall also prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating. In cases where there are substantial differences in rating of those under consideration for suspension, seniority shall be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in the rating cards. Where there is a merger, jointure or union district formed or when new school districts are established as the result of reorganization of school districts pursuant to Article II, subdivision (1) of this act, all professional employees shall retain the seniority rights they had at the time of such merger, jointure, union or reorganization of school districts.
Implications for education
The court expressed that where a reduction in teaching staff is called for, the Board’s first consideration should be how to retain those teachers with the longest years of service by realigning the staff. Although laborious, the administration should realign the teaching staff in such a way so that the remaining teachers can teach the subjects of those who have been suspended. It is interesting to note that in this case seniority was considered to extend across grade levels, whereas in other cases the contrary view held. However, this teacher had taught at both levels.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Termination of Professional Employee Contracts
Chapter IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter contains the reports of the actual court cases involving the nonrenewal of public school professional personnel due to declining school enrollments or economic stress. Each report contains seven major items of information: (1) statue(s) appropriate to the case, (2) overview of the case, (3) the issue, (4) characteristics of the decision, (5) significant points, (6) revised statute, and (7) implications for education. The sequence of the reports begins with the earliest case and progresses to the more recent.
Wheatley v. Division Board of Education of Hancock County,
139 S.W. 969 Kentucky (1911)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – Kentucky Statutes 1909, page 2269.
4447. Visitation of school-pupil may be suspended or expelled. The board of trustees shall meet at the schoolhouse on the day of the opening of the school, and at the same place at least once a month thereafter during the session of the school. At each meeting they shall carefully examine the teacher's register, and shall consider: (1) The condition of the schoolhouse, furniture, apparatus and surroundings; (2) the work of the school (3) the attendance, and how to increase it; (4) the needs of the school, such as fuel, brooms, buckets, crayons, desks, blackboards, etc. They shall provide for any deficiency that may exist in any of these respects, and see that the teacher performs his duty; they shall see that a sufficient supply of good water is furnished within easy access of the schoolhouse for the benefit of the school during the term of school. Upon complaint of the teacher, in writing, the trustees shall have power, after investigation, to suspend a pupil or expel him from school. When the trustees shall ascertain, by examining a teacher's register or monthly report, that the average daily attendance for twenty consecutive days taught has been less than twenty-five per centum of the total number of pupil children of the district, as shown by the last census, they shall, with the consent of the county superintendent, dismiss the teacher, and employ another teacher to complete the session of the school, unless they shall be satisfied that the decreased attendance was due to such natural causes as high water, extremely inclement weather, epidemics, or unusual sickness in the district.
Overview
The teacher charged that the members of the board unlawfully and corruptly conspired together to effect her dismissal, and did unlawfully and wrongfully discharge her. It developed at the trial that the district had a total enrollment of 94 pupils. The average daily attendance for the four weeks preceding the teacher's dismissal was about 12. Prior to this time the attendance was much less. The teacher was dismissed on Saturday, October 30th. On the evening before, the teacher was notified that the Board would meet for the purpose of considering the question of her dismissal. When they met on October 30th, the teacher was present with her attorney, and there was also an attorney present to represent the Board. After the teacher's attorney presented their contentions, the teacher and attorney and all others were asked to leave the room. The Board then entered an order dismissing the teacher and it was approved by the county superintendent.
Issue
Can school trustees remove a teacher where the average daily attendance has declined for a specified period of time?
Decision
Court decided for the Board.
Characteristics of the decision
Under 447, all that was necessary is to give a reasonable notice. The teacher was apprised the evening before the action was taken that the Board would meet and consider her case. All that was necessary to be considered was the attendance as disclosed by the register, and the further question whether or not the decreased attendance was due to high water, extremely inclement weather, epidemics, or unusual sickness in the district. The Court concluded that the notice of the meeting at which action was to be taken was reasonable.
Significant points
1. The teacher was appraised the evening before the action was taken that the Board would meet and consider her case. The Court concluded that the notice of the meeting at which action was to be taken was reasonable.
2. The statute made it perfectly clear that all that was necessary to be considered for the dismissal of the teacher was the school attendance as disclosed by the register.
Revised statue
Source - Kentucky Revised Statutes, Volume 7, Chapters 146-173, page 313.
160.290. General powers and duties of board. –
(1) Each board of education shall have general control and management of the public schools in its district and may establish such schools and provide for such courses and other services as it deems necessary for the promotion of education and the general health and welfare of pupils, consistent with the rules and regulations of the state board of education. Each board shall have control and management of all school funds and all public school property of its district and may use such funds and property to promote public education in such ways as it deems necessary and proper. Each board shall exercise generally all powers in the administration of its public school system, appoint such officers, agents and employees as it deems necessary and proper, prescribe their duties, and fix their compensation and terms of office.
(2) Each board shall make and adopt, and may amend or repeal, rules, regulations and bylaws for its meetings and proceedings for the government, regulation and management of the public schools and school property of the district, for the transaction of its business, and for the qualification and employment of teachers and the conduct of pupils. The rules, regulations and bylaws heretofore made by any governing body of a school district, or hereafter made by a board of education, shall be consistent with the general school laws of the state and shall be binding on the board of education and parties dealing with it until amended or repealed by an affirmative vote of three (3) members of the board. The rules, regulations and bylaws shall be spread on the minutes of the board and be open to the public.
Implications for education
The Board's exercise of authority, if based on a specific statute, generally will be upheld.
The earlier statute was written to cover conditions appropriate to the period. It has been revised and is now stated in more general terms. However, the description of board authority with respect to employment issues is still very inclusive.
The statute made it perfectly clear that all that need to be considered for the dismissal of the teacher was the school attendance as disclosed by the register, and other regulations. The revised statute provides the board of education shall have general control and management of the public schools in its district and may establish such schools and provide for such courses and other services as it deems necessary for the promotion of education and the general health and welfare of pupils, consistent with the rules and regulations of the state board of education. The statute further provides that each board shall exercise generally all powers in the administration of its public school system and to appoint employees as it deems necessary and proper, prescribe their duties and fix their compensation. The board may adopt rules, regulations and bylaws for regulation and management of the public schools and for the employment of teachers.
The point was argued that some of the members of the Board stated to local patrons that they intended to dismiss the teacher and that there was no necessity for sending their children to the school. The teacher argued this was sufficient to justify the submission of the case to jury on the question of malice and conspiracy. The court, however, dismissed this evidence emphasizing there was no evidence to show that the members of the Board conspired together for the purpose of preventing the patrons from sending their children to the school. The court pointed out that the statute the case was decided on made it the duty of the members of the board to act when a state of facts such as appeared in the record was presented to them.
De Hart v. School District No. 39 St. Louis County,
263 S.W. 242 Missouri (1924)
Statutes appropriate to case
Source – Revised Statutes, Missouri 1919, Volume III.
Sec. 11138. Contract construed. The contract required in the preceding section shall be construed under the general law of contracts, each party thereto being equally bound thereby. Neither party shall suspend or dismiss a teacher under said contract without the consent of the other party. The board shall have no power to dismiss a teacher; but should the teacher's certificate be revoked, said contract is thereby annulled. The faithful execution of the rules and regulations furnished by the board shall be considered as part of said contract: Provided, said rules and regulations are furnished to the teacher by the board when the contract is made. Should the teacher fail or refuse to comply with the terms of the contract or to execute the rules and regulations of the board, the board may refuse to pay said teacher – after due notice, in writing, is given by order of the board – until compliance therewith is rendered. Should the schoolhouse be destroyed, the contract becomes void (page 3490).
Sec. 11145. Schools for colored children, establishment of. When there are within any school district in this state fifteen or more colored children of school age, as shown by the last enumeration, the board of directors of such school district shall be and they are hereby authorized and required to establish and maintain within such school district a separate free school for said colored children; and the length of the school term for said colored children, and the advantages and privileges thereof, shall be the same as are provided for other schools of corresponding grade within such school district, and the board of directors shall in all cases conduct, manage and control said school as other schools of the district are conducted, managed and controlled; and all indebtedness incurred by said board of directors in providing suitable buildings, employing teachers and maintaining said school shall be paid for out of the appropriate funds of the district, upon warrants ordered and issued in conformity with the provisions of sections 11222 and 11223: Provided, there be no school building in such school district for said colored children, the board of directors shall be and they are hereby authorized and required to rent suitable buildings and furnish the same, and all expenses necessarily incurred shall be paid out of any funds to the credit of the building or incidental funds of such school district. Should any board of directors neglect or refuse to comply with the provisions of this section, such school district shall be deprived of any part of the public funds for the next ensuing school year: Provided, that in case the average daily attendance of colored children for any one school month shall be less than eight, then said board of directors may discontinue such school for a period not to exceed six months at any one time: Provided, that in cases where two school districts join, and in either or both of said districts the enumeration of colored children of legal school age is less than twenty-five, the boards of directors of such districts may establish a joint colored school in either of said districts, the expense of maintaining said school to be borne by the districts establishing same, in proportion to the number of colored children enumerated in each. The control of said school shall be vested in the board of directors of the district in which the schoolhouse wherein said colored school is maintained is located (page 3493).
Overview
On July 17, 1930, the teacher was employed by the school board to teach at the school for colored children within the district. The contract was agreed to by both the teacher and the school board and it read as follows:
That the said teacher agrees to teach in the public school of said district for the term of eight months, commencing on the 13th day of September, 1920, for the sum of $48 per month, to be paid monthly, and that for services properly rendered and reports correctly made, according to law, said board agrees to issue warrants upon the St. Louis county treasurer in favor of the said teacher for the amount of wages due under this agreement.
Under this contract the teacher taught in the school for colored children in the district for two school months. During the first month the average daily attendance was less than one student per day, and during the second month the school board ordered the school discontinued for the remaining six months of the term and the teacher sought legal action to recover the salary for the remaining six months.
Issue
Where a school board discontinued a colored school for lack of attendance and discharged a teacher hired under contract for eight months, is the teacher entitled to recover wages provided for in contract?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
The main issue in the case is the right of the teacher to recover the wages provided for in the contract for the time during which the school was discontinued by order of the school board. The issue was determined by the revised statues of Missouri 1919, Section 11145, as follows:
When there are within any school district in this state fifteen or more colored children of school age, as shown by the last enumeration, the board of directors of such school district shall be and they are hereby authorized and required to establish and maintain within such school district a separate free school for said colored children; … provided that in case the average daily attendance of colored children for any one school month shall be less than eight, then said board of directors may discontinue such school for a period not to exceed six months at any one time.
The discontinuance of the school by the school board was expressly authorized by this section, and since its provisions must be read into the contract, such discontinuance of the school was, in legal effect, authorized by the contract.
The teacher argued that the authority of the school board in relation to the teacher's contract was prescribed by the statue, and was expressly defined and limited by section 11138, which is as follows:
The contract required in the preceding section shall be construed under the general law of contracts, each party thereto being equally bound thereby. Neither party shall suspend or dismiss a school under said contract without the consent of the other party. The board shall have no power to dismiss a teacher; but should the teacher's certificate be revoked, said contract is thereby annulled.… Should the schoolhouse be destroyed, the contract becomes void.
The Court expressed that the provisions of section 11138 were of a general and comprehensive character, and were applicable to all public schools, whereas section 11145 was a special and restricted application, dealing exclusively with schools for colored children. In this case, special provisions must prevail over the provisions which are of general application.
The teacher argued that the school board was authorized to discontinue the school, they were not authorized to dismiss the teacher and relieve the district from the payment of wages as agreed to under the contract. Section 11138 expressly provided that "the board shall have no power to dismiss the teacher." The Court felt the argument was ingenious, but not convincing. The Court expressed there can be no school without a teacher. The teacher is an essential element to a functioning school. The discontinuance of the school necessarily contemplated the dismissal of the teacher and the discontinuance of compensation. In other words, the discontinuance of the school necessarily contemplated the discontinuance of performance of the contract.
Significant points
1. The discontinuance of the school by the school board was expressly authorized by the section in the School Code, and since its provisions must be read into the contract, such discontinuance of the school was, in legal effect, authorized by the contract.
2. Special provisions prevailed over the provisions which were of general application.
3. The Court expressed there can be no school without a teacher. The teacher is an essential element to a functioning school. The discontinuance of the school necessarily contemplated the dismissal of the teacher and the discontinuance of compensation. In other words, the discontinuance of performance of the contract.
Revised statute
Source – Vernon's Annotated Missouri Statues, Volume 11, 1975 Pocket Part, pages 127-129.
168.221. Probationary period for teachers and principals – removal of probationary and permanent personnel – hearing – demotions – reduction of personnel (metropolitan districts).
1. The first three years of employment of all teachers and principals entering the employment of the metropolitan school district shall be deemed a period of probation during which period all appointments of teachers and principals shall expire at the end of each school year. During the probationary period any probationary teacher or principal whose work is unsatisfactory shall be furnished by the superintendent of schools with a written statement setting forth the nature of his incompetency. If improvement satisfactory to the superintendent is not made within one semester after the receipt of the statement, the probationary teacher or principal shall be dismissed. The semester granted the probationary teacher or principal in which to improve shall not in any case be a means of prolonging the probationary period beyond three years and six months from the date on which the teacher or principal entered the employ of the board of education. The superintendent of schools on or before the fifteenth day of April in each year shall notify probationary teachers or principals who will not be retained by the school district of the termination of their services. Any probationary teacher or principal who is not so notified shall be deemed to have been appointed for the next school year.
2. After completion of satisfactory probationary services, appointments of teachers and principals shall become permanent, subject to removal for any one or more causes described herein and to the right of the board to terminate the services of all who attain the age of compulsory retirement fixed by the retirement system. In determining the duration of the probationary period of employment in this section specified, the time of service rendered as a substitute teacher or substitute principal shall not be included.
3. No teacher or principal whose appointment has become permanent may be removed except for one or more of the following causes: Immorality, inefficiency in line of duty, violation of the published regulations of the school district, violation of the laws of Missouri governing the public schools of the state, or physical or mental conditions which incapacitate him for instructing or associating with children, and then only by a vote of not less than a majority of all the members of the board, upon written charges presented by the superintendent of schools, to be heard by the board after thirty days' notice, with copy of the charges served upon the person against whom they are preferred, who shall have the privilege of being present, together with counsel, offering evidence and making defense thereto. Notifications received by an employee during a vacation period shall be considered as received on the first day of the school term following. At the request of any person so charged the hearing shall be public. The action and decision of the board upon the charges shall be final. Pending the hearing of the charges, the person charged may be suspended if the rules of the board so prescribe, but in the event the board does not by a majority vote of all the members remove the teacher or principal upon charges presented by the superintendent, the person shall not suffer any loss of salary by reason of the suspension. Inefficiency in line of duty is cause for dismissal only after the teacher or principal has been notified in writing at least one semester prior to the presentment of charges against him by the superintendent. The notification shall specify the nature of the inefficiency with such particularity as to enable the teacher or principal to be informed of the nature of his inefficiency.
4. No teacher or principal whose appointment has become permanent shall be demoted nor shall his salary be reduced unless the same procedure is followed as herein stated for the removal of the teacher or principal because of inefficiency in line of duty, and any teacher or principal whose salary is reduced or who is demoted may waive the presentment of charges against him by the superintendent and a hearing thereon by the board. The foregoing provision shall apply only to permanent teachers and principals prior to the compulsory retirement age under the retirement system. Nothing herein contained shall in any way restrict or limit the power of the board of education to make reductions in the number of teachers or principals, or both, because of insufficient funds, decrease in pupil enrollment, or abolition of particular subjects or courses of instruction, except that the abolition of particular subjects or courses of instruction shall not cause those teachers who have been teaching the subjects or giving the courses of instruction to be placed on leave of absence as herein provided who are qualified to teach other subjects or courses of instruction, if positions are available for the teachers in the other subject or courses of instruction.
5. Whenever it is necessary to decrease the number of teachers or principals, or both, because of insufficient funds or a substantial decrease of pupil population within the school district, the board of education upon recommendation of the superintendent of schools, may cause the necessary number of teachers or principals, or both, beginning with those serving probationary periods, to be placed on leave of absence without pay, but only in the inverse order of their appointment. Nothing herein stated shall prevent a readjustment by the board of education of existing salary schedules. No teacher or principal placed on leave of absence shall be precluded from securing other employment during the period of the leave of absence. Each teacher or principal placed on leave of absence shall be reinstated in inverse order of his placement on leave of absence. Such reemployment shall not result in a loss of status or credit for previous years of service. No new appointments shall be made while there are available teachers or principals on leave of absence who are seventy years of age or less and who are adequately qualified to fill the vacancy unless the teachers or principals fail to advise the superintendent of schools within thirty days from the date of notification by the superintendent of schools that positions are available to them that they will return to employment and will assume the duties of the position to which appointed not later than the beginning of the school year next following the date of the notice by the superintendent of schools.
6. If any regulation which deals with the promotion of either teachers or principals, or both, is amended by increasing the qualifications necessary to be met before a teacher or principal is eligible for promotion, the amendment shall fix an effective date which shall allow a reasonable length of time within which teachers or principals may become qualified for promotion under the regulations.
Implications for education
Under the revised statute, the board upon recommendation of the superintendent, may cause the necessary number of teachers or principals, or both, to be placed on leave of absence without pay, beginning with those serving probationary periods. The revised statute places major emphasis on seniority.
The revised statute dealing with special provisions of decreasing the number of teachers or principals, or both, because of insufficient funds or a substantial decrease of pupil population within the school district would be special provisions which would probably prevail over the provisions which were of general application.
It is interesting to note the court expressed there can be no school without a teacher and that the teacher is an essential element of a functioning school.
Mulhall v. Pfankuck,
206 Iowa Reports 1139 Iowa (1928)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – Code of Iowa 1927, page 565.
4231. Nonemployment of teacher – when. No contract shall be entered into with any teacher to teach in any school in the school corporation when the average attendance in said school the last preceding term therein was less than five pupils, unless a showing is made to the county superintendent that the number of children of school age in said school district has increased so that seven or more will be enrolled in such school and will attend therein. In such cases, or when natural obstacles to transportation of pupils to another district, or other conditions make it clearly inadvisable that such schools be closed, the county superintendent may consent to maintaining or reopening a school in said district for the ensuing term. It shall be the duty of the members of the school board residing in said district to make said showing, or any resident of said district may do so upon his own motion.
Overview
In a meeting held by a board of education, one sub-director left prior to adjournment or before the members officially voted to close one of the schoolhouses. The teacher was contracted by the sub-director to teach school in the building which had been previously voted closed. At a later date the Board sought advice from the County Superintendent and also from the State Superintendent. Both parties recommended to keep the school open. The teacher taught for one month and the Board again voted to close the school because of the lack of students. The teacher brought suit against the sub-director for the balance of his contract sum.
Issue
Was the contract valid when the school was closed for lack of students?
Characteristics of the decision
The court rendered the decision in favor of the sub-director because the contract was not approved officially by the Board. The court expressed that the official action of the Board in authorizing each sub-director to employ in his sub-district the teacher of his choice did not give them the authority to hire a teacher in a district where the school directors had voted the school closed for lack of students.
Significant points
1. The contract was not approved officially by the Board.
2. The court expressed that the official action of the Board in authorizing each sub-director to employ in his sub-district the teacher of his choice did not give them the authority to hire a teacher in a district where the school directors had voted the school closed for lack of students.
Revised statute
Source – Iowa Code Annotated 12, Sections 257 to 279, pages 565-567.
279.13 – Contracts with teachers – automatic continuation – exchange of teachers. Contracts with teachers must be in writing, and shall state the length of time the school is to be taught, the compensation per week of five days, or month of four weeks, and that the same shall be invalid if the teacher is under contract with another board of directors in the state of Iowa to teach covering the same period of time, until such contract shall have been released, and such other matters as may be agreed upon, which may include employment for a term not exceeding the ensuing school year, except as otherwise authorized, and payment by the calendar or school month, signed by the president and teacher, and shall be filed with the secretary before the teacher enters upon performance of the contract but no such contract shall be entered into with any teacher for the ensuing year or any part thereof until after the organization of the board.
Boards of school directors shall have power to arrange for an exchange of teachers in the public schools under their jurisdiction with other public school corporations either within or without the state or the United States on such terms and conditions as are approved by the state superintendent of public instruction and when so arranged and approved the board may continue to pay the salary of the teacher exchanged as provided in the contract between said teacher and the board for a period of one year, and such teacher shall not lose any privileges of tenure, old age, and survivors' insurance, or certification as a result of such exchange. Said contract may be renewed each year as determined by the employing school board provided that the visiting exchange teacher is paid in full for the service rendered by the school authorities with whom his contract is made. Such exchange teachers must have qualifications equivalent to the regular teacher employed by the board and who is serving as the exchange teacher and must secure a special certificate covering the subjects designated for him to teach in the public schools in which the instruction is hereby authorized to formulate, establish, and enforce any reasonable regulation necessary to govern the exchange of teachers as provided in this paragraph, including the waiver of Iowa certification requirements for teachers who are regularly certificated or licensed in the jurisdiction from which they come.
Said contract shall remain in force and effect for the period stated in the contract and thereafter shall be automatically continued in force and effect for equivalent periods, except as modified or terminated by mutual agreement of the board of directors and the teacher, until terminated as hereinafter provided, however, no contract shall be tendered by the employing board to a teacher under its jurisdiction prior to March 1, nor be required to be signed by the teacher and returned to the board in less than twenty-one days after being tendered. On or before April 15, of each year the teacher may file his written resignation with the secretary of the board of directors, or the board may by a majority vote of the elected membership of the board, cause said contract to be terminated by written notification of termination, by a certified letter mailed to the teacher not later than the tenth day of April; provided, however, that at least ten days prior to mailing any notice of termination the board or its agent shall inform the teacher in writing that (1) the board is considering termination of said contract and that (2) the teacher shall have the right to a private conference with the board if the teacher files a request therefore with the president or secretary of the board within five days, and if within five days after receipt by the teacher of such written information the teacher files with the president or secretary of the board a written request for a conference and a written statement of specific reasons for considering termination, the board shall, before any notice of termination is mailed, give the teacher written notice of the time and place of such conference and at the request of the teacher, a written statement of specific reasons for considering termination, and shall hold a private conference between the board and teacher and his representative if the teacher appears at such time and place. No school board member shall be liable for any damages to any teacher if any such statement is determined to be erroneous as long as such statement was made in good faith. In event of such termination, it shall take effect at the close of the school year in which the contract is terminated by either of said methods. The teacher shall have the right to protest the action of the board, and to a hearing thereon, by notifying the president or secretary of the board in writing of such protest within twenty days of the receipt by him of the notice to terminate, in which event the board shall hold a public hearing on such protest at the next regular meeting of the board for that purpose, and shall give notice in writing to the teacher of the time of the hearing on the protest. Upon the conclusion of the hearing the board shall determine the question of continuance or discontinuance of the contract by roll call vote entered in the minutes of the board, and the action of the board shall be final. The foregoing provisions for termination shall not affect the power of the board of directors to discharge a teacher for cause under the provisions of section 279.24. The term "teacher" as used in this section shall include all certificated school employees, including superintendents.
Implications for education
The revised statute would affirm that teaching contracts must be approved officially by the board and not individually by one of its members.
Funston v. District School Board for School District No. 1,
278 P.1075 Oregon (1929)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – Oregon Laws Supplement 1921-1927, Part I, pages 551-552.
5246. Dismissal or Transfer of Teacher-hearing.
Before being dismissed or transferred to a lower branch of the service or to a position in a different branch of the service carrying a lower salary or compensation, the board of directors shall cause a written notice of such action to be delivered to such teacher. A teacher who is not willing to abide by such order shall within five days after service of such notice serve written notice with the superintendent of his or her unwillingness to abide by such order, and the board shall thereupon within five days of the receipt of such notice to the superintendent, cause to be served upon such teacher a copy of the charges or complaints, if any, which may have been filed against such teacher, together with statement of the grounds upon which such dismissal or transfer is proposed to be made. Such statement shall also recite the recommendation of the superintendent as to the retention, dismissal or transfer of such teacher and it shall be the duty of such superintendent in all such cases to file with said board his recommendation as to the retention, dismissal, or transfer of such teacher. Before the hearing the board shall cause to be given to the teacher at least ten days' written notice of the time and place of such hearing and at such time and place shall her evidence that may be adduced in support of the charges or of the order of transfer, or of the teacher's defense or resistance thereto. Witnesses in support of the charges or transfer, not exceeding ten in number, shall be, upon request of the teacher, subpoenaed by the board and compelled to testify, and subjected to the same penalties for perjury or contempt as specified in section 5249 of Oregon Laws. Subpoenas on behalf of the teacher shall, upon request of the teacher, be issued in blank by and over the hand of the chairman of the board of directors. Proceedings before the board shall be summary and the board shall pass upon the admissibility of evidence, the length and character of arguments and other proceedings; subject, however, to its duty to give a fair and reasonable hearing to the teacher and to fully apprise the teacher of the grounds for the proposed dismissal or transfer. A teacher, as well as the board, shall have the right in all cases to be represented by counsel. If requested by, or on behalf, of the teacher, the decision of the board shall be rendered in writing with the grounds upon which it is based. If the action or dismissal or transfer is concurred in by five members of the board it shall be final and not subject to review by any other commission; if such action is concurred in by less than five members of the board, then such action shall be final, unless within twenty days after receiving written notice of such decision of the board such teacher shall file a written request with the clerk of the school board, asking for a hearing before the commission. Such teacher shall state in the written request whether the hearing shall be private or public and whether such teacher shall be represented by counsel. Such teacher shall be entitled to and given a hearing before the commission as hereinafter provided within ten days after filing such written request with the clerk of the school board, and shall have full benefit of witnesses and subpoenas issued in blank by and over the hand of the chairman of the commission. Said trial shall be public or private, as requested by the teacher, as above provided. If said teacher is represented by counsel, then the board of directors may also be represented by counsel at the hearing, but if the teacher does not notify the commission in the written request for hearing that she will be represented by counsel, then neither side shall be represented by counsel at said hearing. Of any such hearing such teacher and the board shall have due notice not less than three days before the date set for the hearing, and such hearing may be continued from time to time on account of sickness or absence of material witnesses, or for such other good cause as shall be determined by the commission.
Overview
In December 1912, the teacher was employed as a teacher of millinery in the schools of the district. Some time later she was granted a life certificate limited to the teaching of millinery only and there was only one school in Portland in which millinery was taught. Due to a change in the style of women's hats, the enrollment in her subject declined significantly. In the fall of 1926 it was 220, in the spring of 1927 it was only 122, and the estimated enrollment for the fall term of 1927 was 75 pupils. In the spring of 1927, due to the small enrollment, only two teachers were engaged in instruction in millinery and the teacher was assigned to other work. The board of directors on April 1, 1927, upon the recommendation of the superintendent, adopted a resolution that the teacher's services should be discontinued at the end of that school year. On April 12th notice of the board's action was served upon the teacher. This notice contained the following: "Reason for the discontinuance is on account of there not being sufficient classes in millinery to warrant continuance of three teachers in this work." On April 15th the superintendent received a notice from the teacher stating that she would not abide by the board's order. Three days later the board passed a resolution that the teacher be given a hearing. May 9th the board secretary informed her that her matter would come before the board May 16th, and on the latter day, when teacher failed to appear, the hearing was postponed until June 6th. On May 14th the board served notice upon the teacher of the time and place of the hearing. On June 6th, when the teacher again failed to appear, the board took testimony and subsequently made and filed a resolution dismissing her from the service of the school district. The resolution stated that the number of pupils in millinery classes had declined to the point where the teacher's services as an instructor were no longer necessary. The teacher contended that, under the laws of the state regulating the hiring and discharge of teachers in her district, a lack of need for the services of a teacher who holds a life certificate is not a ground for dismissal, and second, that even if such ground was available, the board failed to comply with the procedure prescribed by the law regulating dismissals.
Issue
Can the school directors lawfully dismiss a teacher holding a life certificate, where services were no longer needed because enrollment declined in a specific course?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
When a teacher's professional services must be discontinued because of the demands of economy, or by reasons of declining enrollment, the cause does not have its inception in the teacher, but arises from source foreign to them and over which they possess no control. The board had the power to organize the teaching force and to reduce it as proper management requires. Therefore, if anticipated revenues are insufficient to meet the requirements of an efficient service, the board could reduce the teaching force so that the expenditures would not exceed the appropriations. The Court concluded that when the cause of a teacher's dismissal is not personal to the teacher, the act does not require an adherence to the procedures prescribed by section 5246.
Significant points
1. The board had the power to organize the teaching force and to increase or reduce it as proper management requires.
2. If anticipated revenues are insufficient to meet the requirements of an efficient service, the board could reduce the teaching force so that the expenditures would not exceed the appropriations.
3. When the cause of a teacher's dismissal is not personal to the teacher, the act does not require an adherence to the procedures prescribed by section 5246.
Revised statute
Source – Oregon Revised Statutes #3, Public Services – General Welfare, Chapters 326-495, pages 178, 180.
342.865 Grounds for dismissal of permanent teacher.
(1) No permanent teacher shall be dismissed except for: (a) Inefficiency; (b) Immorality; (c) Insubordination; (d) Neglect of duty; (e) Physical or mental incapacity; (f) Conviction of a felony or of a crime involving moral turpitude; (g) Inadequate performance; (h) Failure to comply with such reasonable requirements as the board may prescribe to show normal improvement and evidence of professional training and growth; (i) Any cause which constitutes grounds for the revocation of such permanent teacher's teaching certificate; or (j) Reduction in permanent teacher staff resulting from the district's inability to levy a tax sufficient to provide funds to continue its educational program at its anticipated level or resulting from the district's elimination of classes due to decreased student enrollment or reduction of courses due to administrative decision. School districts shall make every effort to transfer teachers of courses scheduled for discontinuation to other positions for which they are qualified. Merit and seniority shall be considered in determination of a teacher for such transfer. (2) In determining whether the professional performance of a permanent teacher is adequate, consideration shall be given to regular and special evaluation reports prepared in accordance with the policy of the employing school district and to any written standards of performance which shall have been adopted by the board. (3) Suspension or dismissal on the grounds contained in paragraph (e) of subsection (1) of this section shall not disqualify the teacher involved for any of the benefits provided in ORS 237.195, 239.233 to 239.239 or 342.595.
342.895 Procedure for dismissal of permanent teacher.
(1) Authority to dismiss a permanent teacher is vested in the district school board subject to the provisions of the fair dismissal procedures of ORS 342.00 and 342.805 to 342.955 and only after recommendations of the dismissal is given to the district school board by the superintendent. (2) At least 20 days before recommendation to a board the dismissal of the permanent teacher, the district superintendent shall give written notice to the permanent teacher by certified mail of his intention to make a recommendation to dismiss the teacher. The notice shall set forth the statutory grounds upon which the superintendent believes such dismissal is justified, and shall contain a plain and concise statement of the facts relied on to support the statutory grounds for dismissal. If the statutory grounds specified are those specified in paragraph (a), (c), (d), (g) or (h) of subsection (1) of ORS 342.865, then evidence shall be limited to those allegations supported by statements in the personnel file of the teacher on the date of the notice to recommend dismissal, maintained as required in ORS 342.850. Notice shall also be sent to the district school board and to the Fair Dismissal Appeals Board. A copy of ORS 342.200 and 342.805 to 342.955 shall also be sent to the permanent teacher. (3) The action of the district superintendent takes effect on the 20th day after notice is given the permanent teacher as required in subsection (2) of this section, if approved by the district school board. Notice of the board's action shall be given to the permanent teacher by certified mail.
342.915 Hearing procedure. The following provisions shall be applicable to any hearing conducted pursuant to ORS 342.905: (1) The hearing shall be private unless the permanent teacher requests a public hearing. (2) The hearing shall be conducted in accordance with rules and regulations adopted by the Fair Dismissal Appeals Board pursuant to ORS chapter 183. (3) At he hearing the permanent teacher shall have the right to be present and to be heard, to be represented by counsel and to present through witnesses any competent testimony relevant to the issue of whether facts as found by the Fair Dismissal Appeals Board and as relied on to support the recommendation of the district superintendent are true and substantiated and whether those facts justify the statutory grounds cited as reason for the dismissal and whether the procedures required by law have been followed.
Implications for education
In this case, the cause of the teacher's dismissal was not personal to the teacher and therefore did not require a strict adherence to the procedures prescribed by the earlier statute 5246. When a teacher's dismissal is not personal, it means there are no formal charges filed against them. This is opposed to general procedures for dismissal where formal charges are filed against the teacher such as inefficiency, immorality, insubordination, neglect of duty, physical or mental incapacity, conviction of a felony or crime, inadequate performance, or incompetency.
The revised statute gives the board authority to dismiss a permanent teacher as a result of the district's inability to levy taxes sufficient enough to provide funds to continue its educational program at its anticipated level, or as a result of the district's elimination of classes due to decreased student enrollment or reduction of courses due to administrative decision. Other causes are listed. There are detailed procedures for dismissal of permanent teachers within the revised statute.
James v. School Township of Troy,
210 Iowa Reports 1059 Iowa (1930)
Statue appropriate to case
Source – Code of Iowa 1927, pages 564-565.
4229. Contracts with teachers. Contracts with teachers must be in writing, and shall state the length of time the school is to be taught, the compensation per week of five days, or month of four weeks, and that the same shall be invalid if the teacher is under contract with another board of directors in the state of Iowa to teach covering the same period of time, until such contract shall have been released, and such other matters as may be agreed upon, which may include employment for a term not exceeding the ensuing school year, except as otherwise authorized, and payment by the calendar or school month, signed by the president and teacher, and shall be filed with the secretary before the teacher enters upon performance of the contract.
Overview
The teacher entered into a contract with the school district for thirty-two weeks. A small number of students attended the school. Shortly after the school term began one family decided to enroll their children in a parochial school. A meeting was scheduled on November 2 to discuss the matter, with the teacher in attendance. The Board decided to continue even though there might be even fewer students in attendance as the year progressed. At a later date the school was closed for lack of students and the teacher was asked not to return, even though her professional services were available. The teacher filed charges for the balance due on her contract, which was $640. The Board claimed that she had taught for only a portion of the year and did not fulfill the terms of said contract. She was also charged with failure to seek other employment.
Issue
Is a teacher's contract valid when a school is closed for lack of students?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
The Court ruled in 1930 for the teacher, claiming that the contract was properly contracted and filed. No effort to obtain other employment was necessary and the teacher made herself available to teach. The court pointed out that a teacher who, in compliance with the direction of the board, holds herself in readiness to teach, but is furnished no pupils, does not need to show any effort to secure employment elsewhere as a teacher.
Significant points
1. The contract had been properly filed.
2. No effort to obtain other employment was necessary and the teacher made herself available to teach.
3. The court pointed out that a teacher who, in compliance with the direction of the board, holds herself in readiness to teach, but is furnished no pupils, does not need to show any effort to secure employment elsewhere as a teacher.
Revised statute
Source – Iowa Code Annotated 12, Sections 257 to 279, pages 565-567.
279.13 Contracts with teachers – automatic continuation – exchange of teachers. Contracts with teachers must be in writing, and shall state the length of time the school is to be taught, the compensation per week of five days, or month of four weeks, and that the same shall be invalid if the teacher is under contract with another board of directors in the state of Iowa to teach covering the same period of time, until such contract shall have been released, and such other matters as may be agreed upon, which may include employment for a term not exceeding the ensuing school year, except as otherwise authorized, and payment by the calendar or school month, signed by the president and teacher, and shall be filed with the secretary before the teacher enters upon performance of the contract but no such contract shall be entered into with any teacher for the ensuing year or any part thereof until after the organization of the board.
Boards of school directors shall have power to arrange for an exchange of teachers in the public schools under their jurisdiction with other public school corporations either within or without the state or the United States on such terms and conditions as are approved by the state superintendent of public instruction and when so arranged and approved the board may continue to pay the salary of the teacher exchanged as provided in the contract between said teacher and the board for a period of one year, and such teacher shall not lose any privileges of tenure, old-age, and survivors' insurance, or certification as a result of such exchange. Said contract may be renewed each year as determined by the employing school board provided that the visiting exchange teacher is paid in full for the service rendered by the school authorities with whom his contract is made. Such exchange teachers must have qualifications equivalent to the regular teacher employed by the board and who is serving as the exchange teacher and must secure a special certificate covering the subjects designated for him to teach in the public schools in which the instruction is hereby authorized to formulate, establish, and enforce any reasonable regulation necessary to govern the exchange of teachers as provided in this paragraph, including the waiver of Iowa certification requirements for teachers who are regularly certified or licensed in the jurisdiction from which they come.
Said contract shall remain in force and effect for the period stated in the contract and thereafter shall be automatically continued in force and effect for equivalent periods, except as modified or terminated by mutual agreement of the board of directors and the teacher, until terminated as hereinafter provided, however, no contract shall be tendered by the employing board to a teacher under its jurisdiction prior to March 1, nor be required to be signed by the teacher and returned to the board in less than twenty-one days after being tendered. On or before April 15, of each year the teacher may file his written resignation with the secretary of the board of directors, or the board may by a majority vote of the elected membership of the board, cause said contract to be terminate by written notification of termination, by a certified letter mailed to the teacher not later than the tenth day of April; provided, however, that at least ten days prior to mailing any notice of termination the board or its agent shall inform the teacher in writing that (1) the board is considering termination of said contract and that (2) the teacher shall have the right to a private conference with the board if the teacher files a request therefore with the president or secretary of the board within five days, and if within five days after receipt by the teacher of such written information the teacher files with the president or secretary of the board a written request for a conference and a written statement of specific reasons for considering termination, the board shall, before any notice of termination is mailed, give the teacher written notice of the time and place of such conference and at the request of the teacher, a written statement of specific reasons for considering termination, and shall hold a private conference between the board and teacher and his representative if the teacher appears at such time and place. No school board member shall be liable for any damages to any teacher if any such statement is determined to be erroneous as long as such statement was made in good faith. In event of such termination, it shall take effect at the close of the school year in which the contract is terminated by either of said methods. The teacher shall have the right to protest the action of the board, and to a hearing thereon, by notifying the president or secretary of the board in writing of such protest within twenty days of the receipt by him of the notice to terminate, in which event the board shall hold a public hearing on such protest at the next regular meeting of the board for that purpose, and shall give notice in writing to the teacher of the time of the hearing on the protest. Upon the conclusion of the hearing the board shall determine the question of continuance or discontinuance of the contract by roll call vote entered in the minutes of the board, and the action of the board shall be final. The foregoing provisions for termination shall not affect the power of the board of directors to discharge a teacher for cause under the provisions of section 279.24. The term "teacher" as used in this section shall include all certificated school employees, including superintendents.
Implications for education
The important implication in this case is that where specific stipulations are set forth in statutes, any deviation tends to be interpreted as a violation of procedure. Courts will support procedure as stated.
Seidel v. Board of Education of Ventnor City,
164 A.297, New Jersey (1933)
Statutes appropriate to case
Source – Compiled Statutes of new Jersey, Volume 4, pages 4762-4764.
106. Rules and regulations as to employment, etc.; contracts of employment; school month. A board of education may make rules and regulations governing the engagement and employment of teachers and principals, the terms and tenure of such employment, and the promotion and dismissal of such teachers, and principals, the salaries, and the time and mode of payment thereof, and may from time to time change, amend or repeal such rules and regulations. The employment of any teacher by such board, and the rights and duties of such teacher with respect to such employment, shall be dependent upon and shall be governed by the rules and regulations in force with reference thereto. If a board of education shall not have made rules and regulations as aforesaid, then no contract between such board of education and a teacher shall be valid unless the same be in writing, or partly written and partly printed, in triplicate, signed by the president and district clerk or secretary of the board of education and by the teacher. One copy thereof shall be filed with the board of education, one copy with the teacher and one copy with the county or city superintendent. Such contract shall specify the date when such teacher shall begin teaching, the kind and grade of certificate held by said teacher and the date when said certificate will expire, the salary, and such other matters as may be necessary to a full and complete understanding of the same. In every such contract, unless otherwise specified, a month shall be construed and taken to be twenty school days or four weeks of five school days each. The salary specified in every such contract shall be paid in equal monthly installments, not later than five days after the close of each month while the school shall be in session. Any contract or engagement between a board of education and a teacher shall cease and determine and be of no effect against said board whenever said board shall ascertain by notice in writing received from the county or city superintendent or otherwise, that said teacher is not in possession of a proper teacher's certificate in full force and effect, notwithstanding the term or engagement for which such contract shall have been made may not then have expired. The state superintendent of public instruction shall prepare and distribute blanks for contracts between the board of education and teachers.
106a. Tenure after three years' employment; dismissal or reduction of salary' procedure-Sec. 1. The service of all teachers, principals, supervising principals of the public schools in any school district of this state shall be during good behavior and efficiency, after the expiration of a period of employment of three consecutive years in that district, unless a shorter period is fixed by the employing board; provided, that the time any teacher, principal, supervising principal has taught in the district in which he or she is employed at the time this act shall go into effect, shall be counted in determining such period of employment. No principal or teacher shall be dismissed or subjected to reduction of salary in said school district except for inefficiency, incapacity, conduct unbecoming a teacher or other just cause, and after a written charge of the cause or causes shall have been preferred against him or her, signed by the person or persons making the same, and filed with the secretary or clerk of the board of education having charge of the school in which the service is being rendered, and after the charge shall have been examined into and found true in fact by said board of education, upon reasonable notice to the person charged, who may be represented by counsel at the hearing. Charges may be filed by any person, whether a member of said school board or not.
106c. Reduction of number of teachers; when; dismissal of teachers without certificates-Sec. 3. Nothing herein contained shall be held to limit the right of any school board to reduce the number of principals or teachers employed in any school district when such reduction shall be due to a natural diminution of the number of pupils in said school district; and, provided further, that the service of any principal or teacher may be terminated without charge or trial who is not a holder of a proper teacher's certificate in full force and effect.
Overview
A teacher protected under tenure had been informed that she would be assigned to teach a special class of backward and troublesome pupils and signed a general contract restricting her teaching to the special class. Having brought the class to the point where the pupils could be transferred into regular classes, the board decided that in the interest of good economy to abolish the position and discharge the teacher. The teacher argued that the abolition of her position was no more than the reduction of one teacher of the teaching force in the public school system, and that she was entitled to remain as a teacher in preference to others who had not come under the protection of the tenure statute.
Issue
In the interest of economy, can the school board abolish a special teaching position no longer necessary and discharge a tenured teacher assigned to the position?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
The board argued that the special employment of the teacher had been restricted to the special class now abolished, and that special provisions had been written into the contract. The Court expressed the teacher was employed to teach and if the board at any time had elected to transfer her to a regular class, she could not legally have claimed exemption from such a service. On the other hand, the board, having assigned her under the written contract to the special class, could not deprive her of tenure as a teacher, by abolishing the class. She had the same standing as other teachers under similar general contracts, with the added advantage of indefinite tenure arising from three years service, as against those who had not served that length of time.
The school board may in the interest of economy reduce the number of teachers. If such a reduction is to be made at all, and a place remains which a tenured teacher is qualified to fill, the teacher is entitled to that position as against the retention of a teacher not protected by tenure.
Significant points
1. The board, having assigned the teacher under the written contract to the special class, could not deprive her of tenure as a teacher, by abolishing the class. The teacher had the same standing as other teachers under the similar general contracts with the added advantage of indefinite tenure.
2. The school board may in the interest of economy reduce the number of teachers. If such a reduction is to be made at all, and a place remains which a tenured teacher is qualified to fill, the teacher is entitled to that position as against the retention of a teacher not protected by tenure.
3. The Court pointed out that in cases of (a) two or more tenured teachers and only one position available, and (b) one tenured teacher and several non-tenured teachers to be discharged, the simple answers are: (a) the board must use its discretion in selecting the tenured teacher; and (b) the board must use similar discretion in selecting the non-tenured teacher to discharge. In this case, there was one position filled by a non-tenured teacher who could be discharged on expiration of the annual contract to make way for the dismissed tenured teacher.
Revised statute
Source – New Jersey Statutes Annotated, Title 18A Education, 18A:25 to 18A:65.
18A:27-4. Power of boards of education to make rules governing employment of teacher, etc.; employment thereunder, page 34. Each board of education may make rules, not inconsistent with the provisions of this title, governing the employment, terms and tenure of employment, promotion and dismissal, and salaries and time and mode of payment thereof of teaching staff members for the district, and may from time to time change, amend or repeal the same, and the employment of any person in any such capacity and his rights and duties with respect to such employment shall be dependent upon and governed by the rules in force with reference thereto.
18A:28-5. Tenure of teaching staff members, pages 58-59. The services of all teaching staff members including all teachers, principals, assistant principals, vice principals, superintendents, assistant superintendents, and all school nurses including school nurse supervisors, head school nurses, chief school nurses, school nurse coordinators, and any other nurse performing school nursing services and such other employees as are in positions which require them to hold appropriate certificates issued by the board of examiners, serving in any school district or under any board of education, excepting those who are not the holders of proper certificates in full force and effect, shall be under tenure during good behavior and efficiency and they shall not be dismissed or reduced in compensation except for inefficiency, incapacity, or conduct unbecoming such a teaching staff member or other just cause and then only in the manner prescribed by subarticle B of article 2 of chapter 6 of this title, after employment in such district or by such board for (a) three consecutive calendar years, or any shorter period which may be fixed by the employing board for such purpose; or (b) three consecutive academic years, together with employment at the beginning of the next succeeding academic year; or (c) the equivalent of more than three academic years within a period of any four consecutive academic years; provided that the time in which such teacher staff member has been employed as such in the district in which he was employed at the end of the academic year immediately preceding July 1, 1962, shall be counted in determining such period or periods of employment in that district or under that board but no such teaching staff member shall obtain tenure prior to July 1, 1964 in any position in any district or under any board of education other than as a teacher, principal, assistant superintendent or superintendent, or as a school nurse, school nurse supervisor, head school nurse, chief school nurse, school nurse coordinator, or as the holder of any position under which nursing services are performed in the public school.
18A:28-14. Teaching staff members not certified; not protected; exception, page 100. The services of any teaching staff member who is not the holder of an appropriate certificate, in full force and effect, issued by the state board of examiners under rules and regulations prescribed by the state board of education may be terminated without charge or trial, except that any school nurse appointed prior to May 9, 1947 shall be protected in her position as is provided in section 18A:28-4 of this title.
Implications for education
According to the revised statute, the court probably would still decide in favor of the teacher. The board is allowed to assign a teacher under the written contract to teach a special class, but it cannot deprive him of tenure as a teacher by simply abolishing the class. Other stipulations relating to powers of boards and tenure of teach staff are given with the revised statute.
Walsh v. Board of Trustees of Redlands High School
District, 37 P.2d 700 California (1934)
Statutes appropriate to case
Source – General laws, Volume Three, Acts 1931.
5.500, page 4179. Every employee of a school district of any type or class, who after having been employed by the district for three complete consecutive school years in a position, or positions, requiring certification qualifications, is re-elected for the next succeeding school year to a position requiring certification qualifications shall, except as hereinafter otherwise provided, at the commencement of said succeeding school year, be classified as and shall become a permanent employee of the district.
5.710, page 4190. It is hereby provided that whenever it becomes necessary to decrease the number of permanent employees in a school district on account of a decrease in the number of pupils attending the schools of such district, or on account of the discontinuance of a particular kind of service in such district, the governing board may dismiss such employee at the close of the school year.
5.711, page 4191. If the dismissal of such employee shall become necessary on account of the decrease in the number of pupils attending the schools of the district, such employee so dismissed shall be the last person engaged in the type of work so discontinued.
Overview
Prior to the school year of 1932-1933, the teacher had been employed for more than three years by the district, during which time she had taught vocal music for four periods a day in the senior high school and the same subject for two periods a day in the junior high school. Early in May, 1932, the teaching of vocal music in the senior high school was entirely discontinued and abolished by action of the board, and notice was given to the teacher on May 3, 1932. The teaching of vocal music in the junior high school was not abolished at that time, but was continued during the school year 1932-1933. During the preceding two years another teacher had also taught vocal music in the junior high school, teaching six periods a day. She was still a probationary teacher, not having reached a permanent status, and her services were continued during the school year 1932-1933 for the full six periods a day. The teacher bringing legal action had been offered a contract to teach this subject in the junior high school for two periods a day, as before, and she continued to teach those periods during the school year 1932-1933. During this year she brought legal action asking that the board be compelled to reinstate and pay her as a full-time teacher in the district for that year.
Issue
Teaching of vocal music in senior high school constitutes a "particular kind of service" and it may be discontinued when finances or other reasons demand. When such a particular service is discontinued, the "position" is abolished. Is a teacher under tenure entitled to oust a probationary teacher teaching the same subject at the junior high level?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
The court pointed out distinct differences between the high school and junior high. High schools are designed for older and more advanced students, apply different methods, allow more freedom both in choice of subjects and from the routine followed in elementary and junior high schools, and being, in many respects, comparable to some colleges. The junior high schools, usually cover the work formerly done in the first year of the senior high school, together with the work formerly given in the last two years of the elementary grades. The Court expressed that there was a very marked change in children when they leave a junior high school and enter a senior high school and both the subject matter taught and the method of teaching and handling pupils is quite different in the two classes of schools. The difference between these two kinds of schools is so marked that, in the court's opinion, it could not be held that a person teaching classes in both schools at the same time was holding one position only. In other words, senior high schools differ materially from junior high schools. While some of the subjects taught in a senior high school may be regarded as a necessary continuation of similar work in the junior high school, other subjects which may be taught in the one may be less essential in the other, and may or may not be taught there, depending upon available funds and many other conditions.
When such a particular service is discontinued, the "position" of teaching it is abolished. And a teacher who happens to also hold another "position" teaching that same subject in a different kind of school is not entitled to oust another teacher in a lower class of school on the solid ground that the general subject is still taught in that school and that her permanent standing entitles her to teach that general subject anywhere and under any circumstances where and under which it may be taught.
The Court felt a standing as a permanent teacher is related, not only to the subject taught, but to the "position or positions" occupied, and to the kind of school or schools where the probationary period was passed.
By reason of two positions held, the teacher had acquired permanent standing in each. She could not be capriciously removed from either without being given one of equivalent rank and grade if one existed, but, when all such service of the rank and grade of one of the positions held was discontinued in the district, the statute permits her dismissal from that position. It was fully apparent to the court that the teacher was not demanding work in the subject of rank and grade equivalent to that which she lost, for none of that rank and grade remained in the district, but she was asking that she be given a new and further position of a lower rank and grade on the ground that the teaching of this subject, alone and of itself, entitled her to teach the same in any kind of school and without regard to the rank and grade of the position previously occupied and which had been abolished.
The teacher claimed the right on the ground that she had acquired permanent standing as a full-time teacher through teaching vocal music in both schools. In other words, she maintained that her rights as a permanent teacher have accrued from the subject taught, without regard to where it was taught. If she would have been correct in her contention, she would be entitled to teach full-time in the junior high school if she had done no work at all in that school, because the subject taught by her was continued in that school which is run by the school district. In the court's opinion, the statue was never intended to treat teachers as interchangeable between junior high school and senior high school without regard to qualifications or anything except the fact that one general subject may have been taught in both.
The court concluded that teaching vocal music in the senior high school was a particular kind of service in the district within the meaning of the statute, and that a discontinuance of it ended tenure rights of the teacher which had been acquired, regardless of whether or not a similar subject was continued in the junior high school maintained in the same district.
Significant points
1. When a particular service is discontinued the "position" of teaching it is abolished. A teacher who happens to also hold another "position" teaching that same subject in a different kind of school is not entitled to oust another teacher in a lower class of school on the sole ground that the general subject is still taught in that school and that her permanent standing entitles her to teach that general subject anywhere and under any circumstances where and under which it may be taught.
2. The standing as a permanent teacher is related, not only to the subject taught, but to the "position or positions' occupied, and to the kind of school or schools where the probationary period passed.
3. The statute was never intended to treat teachers as interchangeable between junior high school and senior high school without regard to qualifications or anything except the fact that one general subject may have been taught in both.
4. The teaching of vocal music in the senior high school was a particular kind of service in the district within the meaning of the statute, and that a discontinuance of it ended tenure rights of the teacher which had been acquired, regardless of whether or not a similar subject was continued in the junior high school maintained in the same district.
Revised statute
Source – Annotated California Codes, Education, Sections 13361 to 15000, pages 104-105.
13447. Reduction in number of permanent employees. No permanent employee shall be deprived of his position for causes other than those specified in Sections 13313, 13327 and 13338, and Sections 13403 to 13441, inclusive, and no probationary employee shall be deprived of his position for cause other than as specified in Sections 13442 and 13443, except in accordance with the provisions of Section 13319 and Sections 13447 to 13452, inclusive.
Whenever in any school year the average daily attendance in all of the schools of a district for the first six months in which school is in session shall have declined below the corresponding period of either of the previous two school years, or whenever a particular kind of service is to be reduced or discontinued not later than the beginning of the following school year, and when in the opinion of the governing board of said district it shall have become necessary by reason of either of such conditions to decrease the number of permanent employees in said district, the said governing board may terminate the services of not more than a corresponding percentage of the certificated employees of said district, permanent as well as probationary, at the close of the school year; provided, that the services of no permanent employee may be terminated under the provisions of this section while any probationary employee, or any other employee with less seniority, is retained to render a service which said permanent employee is certificated and competent to render.
Notice of such termination of services either for a reduction in attendance or reduction or discontinuance of a particular kind of service to take effect not later than the beginning of the following school year, shall be given before the 15th of May in the manner prescribed in Section 13443, and services of such employees shall be terminated in the inverse of the order in which they were employed, as determined by the board in accordance with the provisions of Sections 13262 and 13263 of this code. In the event that a permanent or probationary employee is not given the notices and a right to a hearing as provided for in Section 13443, he shall be deemed reemployed for the ensuing school year.
The board shall make assignments and reassignments in such a manner that employees shall be retained to render any service which their seniority and qualifications entitle them to render.
Implications for education
The court expressed that there is a very marked change in children when they leave a junior high school and enter a senior high school, and both the subject matter and the method of teaching and handling pupils is quite different in the two classes of schools.
Under the revised statute, seniority provisions are provided and no permanent employee may be terminated while a probationary employee or any other employee with less seniority is retained to render a service which a permanent employee is certificate and competent to render. The statue provides the board shall make assignments and reassignments in such a manner that employees shall be retained to render any service which their seniority and qualifications entitled them to render. In the revised statue, employees are entitled to cross grade level lines because of seniority rights within the district, providing their professional certification permits them to render a particular service.
Downs v. Board of Education of Hoboken District,
171 A.528 New Jersey (1934)
Statutes appropriate to case
Source – Compiled Statutes of New Jersey, Volume 4
68. Boards of education; majority; action in general, page 4744. No principal or teacher shall be appointed, transferred or dismissed, not the amount of his or her salary fixed; no school term shall be determined, nor shall any course of study be adopted or altered, nor text-books selected, except by a majority vote of the whole number of members of the board of education.
106a. Tenure after three years' employment; dismissal or reduction of salary; procedures.-Sec. 1, page 4763. The service of all teachers, principals, supervising principals of the public schools in any school district of this state shall be during good behavior and efficiency, after the expiration of a period of employment of three consecutive years in that district, unless a shorter period is fixed by the employing board; provided, that the time any teacher, principal, supervising principal has taught in the district in which he or she is employed at the time this act shall go into effect, shall be counted in determining such period of employment. No principal or teacher shall be dismissed or subjected to reduction of salary in said school district except for inefficiency, incapacity, conduct unbecoming a teacher or other just cause, and after a written charge of the cause or causes shall have been preferred against him or her, signed by the person or persons making the same, and filed with the secretary or clerk of the board of education having charge of the school in which the service is being rendered, and after the charge shall have been examined into and found true in fact by said board of education, upon reasonable notice to the person charged, who may be represented by counsel at the hearing. Charges may be filed by any person, whether a member of said school board or not.
106c. Reduction of number of teachers; when; dismissal of teachers without certificates.-Sec. 3, page 4764. Nothing herein contained shall be held to limit the right of any school board to reduce the number of principals or teachers employed in any school district when such reduction shall be due to a natural diminution of the number of pupils in said school district; and, provided further, that the service of any principal or teacher may be terminated without charge or trial who is not the holder of a proper teacher's certificate in full force and effect.
Overview
There were nine elementary schools in the school district of Hoboken with 6,704 pupils in attendance in 1928. From that time forward until 1932 there was a marked decrease in attendance from year to year, so that in 1931 there were only 5,431 pupils. During the latter part of this period five more classrooms became vacant. This diminution in the number of pupils was a natural one, due to the loss of population. During this period the decrease in the number of teachers was only nine. In 1931, due to a bank failure, inability to collect taxes, and other causes, the city of Hoboken, which comprised the school district of Hoboken, found it difficult to finance its schools, difficult at first and almost if not impossible thereafter to borrow money by the use of all available credit of the city. From time to time the president of the board of education made public reference to economic problems facing the board. He referred to the fact that many of the teachers were married women, some of whom did not live in the city, and that condition he vigorously criticized. On Jun 27, 1932, a second conference was held between the bankers and the city officials in an effort to raise money, but that effort was futile in view of the position taken by the bankers that the cost of operating the schools must be reduced. As a result of this conference, the city commissioners met with the board of education and laid before them the situation. The result was that it was decided to close two schools. To carry out this decision the board met on June 29, 1932. At that meeting a report was made by the superintendent of schools that he had made certain transfers of teachers and other employees from and to various schools, subject to the approval of the board. The approval was unanimously given. By that transfer 26 teachers represented by the dismissed teacher were transferred to schools numbers 4 and 7. Later at the same meeting the board by resolution reciting in effect the decreased attendance, the excessive per capita cost of pupils, the necessity of economizing, and that the services of so large a number of teachers were no longer required, unanimously resolved that schools No. 4 and 7 be closed on June 30th at the close of the school year, and that the pupils attending those schools be transferred to other schools and that 34 named teachers (including the 26 and 8 others) be dismissed as of June 30, 1932, and abolished the positions of certain other employees.
All of the dismissed teachers were involved (namely, the 26 transferred to schools numbered 4 and 7), and the eight who had long served in Numbers 4 and 7), have served for more than three years, and were therefore under the protection of the tenure act.
Issue
Can the board transfer teachers from various schools to a particular school which the board determined to close for reasons of economy and declining number of pupils, thus rendering the teachers' professional services unnecessary?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
An appeal was taken to the state board of education, and that board held that the termination of the services of 34 teachers was legal, subject to the board assigning seven of the teachers to positions held by teachers not protected by tenure. The court felt that the decision of the state board of education should not be disturbed.
The court expressed that the powers of boards of education in the management and control of the school districts are broad. They are invested with the supervision, control, and management of the public schools. They may make, amend, and repeal rules, regulations, and by-laws not inconsistent with the school law or with the rules and regulations of the state board of education, and, among other things, may employ and discharge teachers. The Board's powers are limited as to the employment and discharge of teachers only to the extent provided by School Codes 68, 106a, and 106c. These laws declare, among other things, that "nothing herein contained shall be held to limit the right of any school board to reduce the number of principals or teachers employed in any school district when such reduction shall be due to a natural diminution of the number of pupils in said school district."
In general, the right to transfer a teacher seems to rest in the sound discretion of the board of education, and it seemed to the court that the mere fact that the 26 teachers were transferred from their various schools to schools Numbers 4 and 7, which at the same meeting the board of education determined to close, did not render the transfers illegal. In general, the board had a right to dispense with the services of such number of teachers selected from the entire school district as it in good faith deemed necessary to effect the economy which its financial condition demanded, and whose services were no longer necessary because of the diminution of the number of pupils.
From time to time the president of the board of education made public reference to economic problems facing the board. He referred to the fact that many of the teachers were married women, some of whom did not live in the city, and that condition he vigorously criticized. It was true that the board president expressed himself forcibly. It was true that he wrote letters to the teachers in which he expressed his views. It was also true that he conducted a survey and reported the findings to the board. But the court indicated that the board did not authorize such a survey and took no action on the report with regard to nonresident and married women teachers, and that it did not authorize the president to communicate with the teachers nor to do anything in that regard. The court indicated that the board may or may not have been influenced by the board president's views. The court would not speculate on this matter. The question was, "Does this action of the president affect the legality of the transfers?" The court felt it did not. The court was satisfied from the record that the purpose of the board was to effect economy and to terminate the services of a number of teachers no longer necessary because of the diminution of pupils. The fact they dismissed married or nonresident women teachers, giving preference to residents of the school district, was not an abuse of power. The court held the board acted within the authority conferred upon it by law, and its action involved the exercise of discretion, and, in the absence of clear abuse, its action ought not to be disturbed.
Significant points
1. The powers of state boards of education in the management and control of the school districts are broad. They are invested with the supervision, control, and management of the public schools.
2. Boards of education may make, amend, and repeal rules, regulations, and by-laws not inconsistent with the school law or with the rules and regulations of the state board of education, and, among other things, may employ and discharge teachers. They are authorized by majority vote to transfer and dismiss teachers. These powers are limited as to the employment and discharge of teachers only to the extent provided by the Teachers Tenure Law.
3. In general the right to transfer a teacher rests in the sound discretion of the board of education. The board had the right to dispense with the services of such a number of teachers selected from the entire school district as it in good faith deemed necessary to effect the economy which its financial condition demanded, and whose services were no longer necessary because of the diminution of the number of pupils.
4. The fact the board dismissed married or nonresident women teachers, giving preference to residents of the school district, was not an abuse of power. The Court held the board acted within the authority conferred upon it by law, and its action involved the exercise of discretion, and in the absence of clear abuse, its action ought not to be disturbed.
Revised statute
Source – New Jersey Statutes Annotated, Title 18A, Education, 18A:25 to 18A:65.
18A:28-5. Tenure of teaching staff members, pages 58-59. The services of all teaching staff members including all teachers, principals, assistant principals, vice principals, superintendents, assistant superintendents, and all school nurses including school nurse supervisors, head school nurses, chief school nurses, school nurse coordinators, and any other nurse performing school nursing services and such other employees as are in positions which require them to hold appropriate certificates issued by the board of examiners, serving in any school district or under any board of education, excepting those who are not the holders of proper certificates in full force and effect, shall be under tenure during good behavior and efficiency and they shall not be dismissed or reduced in compensation except for inefficiency, incapacity, or conduct unbecoming such a teaching staff member or other just cause and then only in the manner prescribed by subarticle B of article 2 of chapter 6 of this title, after employment in such district or by such board for: (a) three consecutive calendar years, or any shorter period which may be fixed by the employing board for such purpose; or (b) three consecutive academic years, together with employment at the beginning of the next succeeding academic year; or (c) the equivalent of more than three academic years within a period of any four consecutive academic years; provided that the time in which such teacher staff member has been employed as such in the district in which he was employed at the end of the academic year immediately preceding July 1, 1962, shall be counted in determining such period or periods of employment in that district or under any board of education other than as a teacher, principal, assistant superintendent or superintendent, or as a school nurse, school nurse supervisor, head school nurse, chief school nurse, school nurse coordinator, or as the holder of any position under which nursing services are performed in the public schools.
18A:28-9. Reduction of force; power to reduce and reasons for reduction, page 86. Nothing in this title or any other law relating to tenure of service shall be held to limit the right of any board of education to reduce the number of teaching staff members, employed in the district whenever, in the judgment of the board, it is advisable to abolish any such positions for reasons of economy or because of reduction in the number of pupils or of change in the administrative or supervisory organization of the district or for other good cause upon compliance with the provisions of this article.
18A:28-14. Teaching staff members not certified; not protected; exception, page 100. The services of any teaching staff member who is not the holder of an appropriate certificate, in full force and effect, issued by the state board of examiners under rules and regulations prescribed by the state board of education may be terminated without charge or trial, except that any school nurse appointed prior to May 9, 1947 shall be protected in her position as is provided in section 18A:28-4 of this title.
Implications for education
The revised statute specifically indicates that no law relating to tenure of service shall be held to limit the right of any board of education to reduce the number of teaching staff members, employed in the district, whenever, in the judgment of the board, it is advisable to abolish any such positions for reasons of economy or because of reduction in the number of pupils or for other good cause upon compliance with the provisions of the section. Tenure provisions are specific within the context of the revised statue.
It is interesting to note that the president of the board of education made public reference to economic problems facing the board, criticized married women teachers because of not living within the city, wrote letters to them stating his views along with conducting a survey and presenting the results to the board. The court indicated that the board did not authorize such a survey and took no action on the report. The board did not authorize the president to communicate with teachers nor to do anything in that regard. The question was "Does this action of the president affect the legality of the transfers?" The court was of the opinion that it did not. If a similar case were before the court today, the court probably would not be of the same opinion.
Unruh v. Piedmont High School District,
41 P.2d 212 California (1935)
Statutes appropriate to case
Source – General Laws, Volume Three, Acts 1931.
5.500, page 4179. Every employee of a school district of any type or class, who after having been employed by the district for three complete consecutive school years in a position, or positions, requiring certification qualifications, is re-elected for the next succeeding school year to a position requiring certification qualifications shall, except as hereinafter otherwise provided, at the commencement of said succeeding school year, be classified as and shall become a permanent employee of the district.
5.710, page 4190. It is hereby provided that whenever it becomes necessary to decrease the number of permanent employees in a school district on account of a decrease in the number of pupils attending the schools of such district, or on account of the discontinuance of a particular kind of service in such district, the governing board may dismiss such employee at the close of the school year.
5.711, page 4191. If the dismissal of such employee shall become necessary on account of the decrease in the number of pupils attending the schools of the district, such employee so dismissed shall be the last person engaged in the type of work so discontinued.
Overview
The teacher was appointed by the school district in May 1928 to serve as a teacher of music and was given the title of "head of the music department." During the school year 1928-1929, his first year of employment, he was the only instructor in the music department and he then taught both instrumental and vocal music. During the next three years he taught vocal music only, but retained the title of music head for the second and fourth years of his teaching. On May 10, 1932, the teacher received notice of honorable dismissal from the Board of education with a statement that the vocal branch of the music department was being discontinued at the high school. He received a second precautionary dismissal notice prior to May 15, 1933. The teacher held a secondary life certificate which entitled him to teach music in all public schools. During the latter three years the school had employed other teachers to teach instrumental music and at the time of the teacher's dismissal a probationary teacher was continued in this capacity. Since the teacher was qualified to teach in this capacity and was a permanent teacher, and since the music department, of which he was the head, was continued, he contended that he should have been retained instead of the probationary teacher. Also, the dismissed teacher contended the decrease in the number of pupils attending the schools of the district should justify dismissing the probationary teacher and not the permanent teacher.
Issue
Was vocal music, which was taught by the dismissed teacher, a "Particular kind of service" to be distinguished from instrumental music which was continued in the school?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
Dismissal of the probationary teacher is required only when a dismissal is made necessary on account of a decrease in the number of pupils attending the school. In this case, the dismissal was made on account of the "discontinuance of a particular kind of service." Preceding the order of dismissal, the school board determined that the "particular kind of service" performed by the teacher should be discontinued and that the teacher was performing that kind of service and that only. Although the teacher was protected under tenure, the right to tenure extends only to the "position or positions" in which he had been employed "for three consecutive years." Assuming that the position of teacher of vocal music and the position of head of the music department are separate "positions," it was undisputed that the teacher's only consecutive service was in the position of teacher of vocal music. Hence, the teacher had gained no right of tenure in the position of head of the department. If there were no separate positions, then the combination had been abolished under the authority of the board as expressed in the School Code. All the evidence supported the contention of the board that the "particular kind of service" for which the teacher had been employed for three consecutive school years was the teaching of vocal music and that, for reasons coming within the authority of the School Code, this particular service had been discontinued.
Significant points
1. Preceding the order of dismissal, the school board determined that the "particular kind of service" performed by the teacher should be discontinued and that the teacher was performing that kind of service and that only.
2. Although the teacher was protected under tenure, the right to tenure extends only to "the position or positions" in which he had been employed "for three consecutive years."
3. All evidence supported the contention of the board that the "particular kind of service" for which the teacher had been employed for three consecutive school years was the teaching of vocal music and that, for reasons coming within the authority of the School Code, this particular service had been discontinued.
Revised statute
Source – Annotated California Codes, Education, Sections 13361 to 15000.
13447. Reduction in number of permanent employees, pages 104-105. No permanent employee shall be deprived of his position for causes other than those specified in Sections 13313, 13327 and 13338, and Sections 13403 to 13441., inclusive, and no probationary employee shall be deprived of his position for cause other than as specified in Sections 13442 and 13443, except in accordance with the provisions of Section 13319 and Sections 13447 to 13452, inclusive.
Whenever in any school year the average daily attendance in all of the schools of a district for the first six months in which school is in session shall have declined below the corresponding period of either of the previous two school years, or whenever a particular kind of service is to be reduced or discontinued not later than the beginning of the following school year, and when in the opinion of the governing board of said district it shall have become necessary by reason of either of such conditions to decrease the number of permanent employees in said district, the said governing board may terminate the services of not more than a corresponding percentage of the certificated employees of said district, permanent as well as probationary, at the close of the school year; provided, that the services of no permanent employee may be terminated under the provisions of this section while any probationary employee, or any other employee with less seniority, is retained to render a service which said permanent employee is certificated and competent to render.
Notice of such termination of services either for a reduction in attendance or reduction or discontinuance of a particular kind of service to take effect not later than the beginning of the following school year, shall be given before the 15th of May in the manner prescribed in Section 13443, and services of such employees shall be terminated in the inverse of the order in which they were employed, as determined by the board in accordance with the provisions of Sections 13262 and 13263 of this code. In the event that a permanent or probationary employee is not given the notices and a right to a hearing as provided for in Section 13443, she shall be deemed reemployed for the ensuing school year.
The board shall make assignments and reassignments in such a manner that employees shall be retained to render any service which their seniority and qualifications entitle them to render.
Implications for education
Under the revised statute, seniority provisions are provided and no permanent employee may be terminated while a probationary employee or any other employee with less seniority is retained to render a service which a permanent employee is certificated and competent to render. The revised statue places major emphasis on seniority.
Watson v. Burnett, 23 N.E.2d 420
Indiana (1939)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – Acts 1927, Indiana 75th Session
Cancellation of Indefinite contract – Hearing, Causes and Procedure, pages 260-261. Sec. 2. Any indefinite contract with a permanent teacher as defined in section 1 of this act may be cancelled only in the following manner: Not less than thirty days nor more than forty days before the consideration by any school corporation of the cancellation of any such contract, such teacher shall be notified in writing of the exact date, time of, and place where such consideration is to take place; and such teacher shall be furnished a written statement of the reasons for such consideration, with five days after any written request for such statement; and such teacher shall, upon written request for a hearing, filed within fifteen days after the receipt by said teacher of notice of date, time and place of such consideration, be given such a hearing before the school board, in the case of cities and towns, and before the township trustee, in the case of townships; such hearing shall be held not less than five days' notice of the time and place of such hearing. Such teacher, at the hearing, shall have a right to a full statement of the reasons for the proposed cancellation of such contract, and shall have a right to be heard, to present the testimony of witnesses and other evidence bearing upon the reasons for the proposed cancellation of such contract. No such contract shall be cancelled until the date set for consideration of the cancellation of such contract; nor until after a hearing is held, if such hearing is requested by said teacher; nor until, in the case of teachers, supervisors, and principals, the city or town superintendents, in cities and towns, and the county superintendents, in townships and cities and towns not having superintendents, shall have given the school corporation his recommendations thereon, and it shall be the duty of such superintendent to present such recommendations upon five days' written notice to him by such school corporation. Nothing contained in this section shall prevent the suspension from duty of any teacher pending a decision on the cancellation of such teacher's contract. Cancellation of an indefinite contract of a permanent teacher may be made for incompetency, insubordination (which shall be deemed to mean a willful refusal to obey the school laws of this state or reasonable rules prescribed for the government of the public schools of such corporation), neglect of duty, immorality, justifiable decrease in the number of teaching positions or other good and just cause, but may not be made for political or personal reasons: Provided, That when the cause of cancellation of an indefinite contract is immorality or insubordination, as defined in this act, such cancellation shall go into effect at the end of the school term following such cancellation. The school board of any city or town, by a majority vote, evidenced by a signed statement in the minutes of the board, or the township trustee, by a written and signed statement recorded in his records, may cancel an indefinite contract with a teacher after compliance with the provisions of this section; Provided, That the decision of the school board shall be final: and, Provided, further, That the decision of the township trustee shall not become effective for ten days, during which time an appeal may be taken to the county superintendent, in which case the county superintendent shall investigate the case and make a final decision within five days.
Overview
Having completed five years of teaching, the teacher entered into a written contract for further service as a teacher in the public schools for the school year 1928-1929 and thereby became a permanent tenured teacher of the school district and the holder of an indefinite contract under the terms of the Teachers' Tenure Act of 1927. Thereafter the teacher continued to teach in the public schools of the district until the close of the school year of 1936-1937, when she was served notice by the board of their intentions to consider, on April 25, 1938, the matter of cancellation of her permanent teacher's contract. Pursuant to the hearing, the board furnished the teacher a written statement of the reasons for cancellation of her contract and that it was brought about by the decrease in pupil attendance.
Issue
Can a permanent teacher with tenure be terminated and a non-tenured teacher be retained when there is to be a decrease of teachers, brought about by decrease in pupil attendance?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
This case presented the question of whether a justifiable decrease in teachers authorizes the retention by the board of a teacher who has not acquired a permanent tenure status and the cancellation of the contract of a teacher who had acquired such status and who was qualified to teach in the position of the non-tenured teacher. In the Court's opinion, the purpose of the Tenure Act was to secure permanency in the teaching force. If a justifiable decrease in the number of teaching positions would be held to give to the board the power to choose between tenure and non-tenure teachers, both of whom are licensed to teach in the teaching positions which remain, the board would thereby be given power to nullify the Teachers' Tenure Act, and to discharge without cause a teacher who has, by reason of having served satisfactorily as a teacher during a specified period, secured a tenure status and an indefinite permanent contract. The Court expressed that such an interpretation of the law by the board was wrong and it was not the intent of the law to let school boards do indirectly that which the law expressly forbids them to do directly.
Significant points
1. In the Court's opinion, the purpose of the Tenure Act was to secure permanency in the teaching profession.
2. If a justifiable decrease in the number of teaching positions would be held to give to the board the power to choose between tenure and non-tenure teachers, both of whom are licensed to teach in the teaching position which remains, the board would thereby be given the power to nullify the Teachers' Tenure Act, and to discharge without cause a teacher who has, by reason of having served satisfactory as a teacher during a specified period, secured a tenure status and an indefinite permanent contract. The Court expressed that such an interpretation of the law by the board was wrong and it was not the intent of the law to let school boards do indirectly that which the law expressly forbids them to do directly.
Revised statute
Source – Indiana Statutes Annotated, Titles 20, Articles 1 – 9.1.
20-6-12-2 (28-4512). Cancellation of contract – hearing, causes and procedure – Effective date, pages 389-390. Any indefinite contract with a permanent teacher as defined in section 1 (20-6-12-1) of this act may be canceled only in the following manner: Not less than thirty (30) days nor more than forty (40) days before the consideration by any such school corporation of the cancellation of any such contract, such teacher shall be notified in writing of the exact date, time, when and place where such consideration is to take place; and such teacher shall be furnished a written statement of the reasons for such consideration with five (5) days after any written request for such statement; and such teacher shall, upon written request for a hearing, filed within fifteen (15) days after the receipt by said teacher of notice of date, time and place of such school corporation; such hearing shall be held not less than five (5) days after such request is filed and such teacher shall be given not less than five (5) days' notice to the time and place of such hearing. Such teacher, at the hearing shall have a right to a full statement of the reasons for the proposed cancellation of such contract, and shall have a right to be heard, to present the testimony of witnesses and other evidence bearing upon the reasons for the proposed cancellation of such contract. No such contract shall be canceled until the date set for consideration of the cancellation of such contract; nor until after a hearing is held, if such hearing is requested by said teacher; nor until, in the case of teachers, supervisors, and principals, the city or town superintendent shall have given the school corporation his recommendations thereon, and it shall be the duty of such superintendent to present such recommendations upon five (5) days' written notice to him by such school corporation. Nothing contained in this section shall prevent the suspension from duty of any teacher pending a decision on the cancellation of such teacher's contract. Cancellation of an indefinite contract of a permanent teacher may be made for incompetency, insubordination (which shall be deemed to mean a willful refusal to obey the school laws of this state or reasonable rules prescribed for the government of the public schools of such corporation), neglect of duty, immorality, justifiable decrease in the number of teaching positions or other good and just cause, but may not be made for political or personal reasons; Provided, That when the cause of cancellation of an indefinite contract is immorality or insubordination, as defined in this act (20-6-12-1 -- 20-6-12-6), such cancellation shall go into effect at once; and, Provided further, That when the cause of cancellation of an indefinite contract is not immorality or insubordination, as defined in this act, such cancellation shall go into effect at the end of the school term following such cancellation. The school board of any such school corporation, by a majority vote, evidence by a signed statement in the minutes of the board, may cancel an indefinite contract with a teacher after compliance with the provisions of this section; Provided, That the decision of the school board shall be final.
Implications for education
In the opinion of the court, the purpose of the Teachers' Tenure Act was to secure permanency within the teaching profession.
Based on the revised statute, stipulations are given for the proper dismissal procedures of cancellation of a professional employee's contract. Under the statute, the board would need to interpret the Teachers' Tenure Act and apply it to the prevailing situations and then act accordingly to its constraints.
Jones v. Holes, 6 A.2d 188
Pennsylvania (1939)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – Laws of Pennsylvania 1939.
Section 1205 (a), page 485. (a) The only valid cause for termination of a contract entered into with a professional employee is accordance with the provisions of this section shall be immorality, incompetency, intemperance, cruelty (willful and) persistent negligence, mental derangement, persistent and willful violation of the school laws of this Commonwealth on the part of the professional employee (or substantial decrease in the number of pupils or students due to natural causes).
In determining whether a professional employee shall be dismissed for incompetency, the professional employee shall be rated by an approved rating system which shall give due consideration to personality, preparation technique, and pupil reaction, in accordance with standards and regulations for such scoring as defined by rating cards to be prepared by the Department of Public Instruction immediately following the effective date of this act, and to be revised, from time to time, by the Department of Public Instruction with the cooperation and advice of a committee appointed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, including representation from county and district superintendents of schools, classroom teachers, school directors, school supervisors, and such other groups or interests as the Superintendent of Public Instruction may deem appropriate.
Nothing within the foregoing enumeration of causes, however, shall be interpreted to conflict with the retirement of professional employees upon proper evidence of disability, or the election by professional employees to retire during the period of voluntary retirement, or the authority of the board of school directors (or the board of public education) to require professional employees to retire during said period of voluntary retirement, or the compulsion on the part of professional employees to retire at the attainment of age seventy: Provided, however, that from the effective date of this act until the first day of July, one thousand nine hundred forty-one, boards of school directors (or boards of public education) may, under the provisions of this section, terminate the service of any professional employee who has attained to the age of sixty-eight; from the first day of July, one thousand nine hundred forty-one until the first day of July, one thousand nine hundred forty-three, any professional employee who has attained to the age of sixty-four; and on and after the first day of July, one thousand nine hundred forty-seven, any professional employee who has attained to the age of sixty-two.
Overview
The teacher was employed by the school district as a teacher in the high school for the school year 1936-1937. He held a certificate issued by the Department of Public Instruction authorizing him to teach English, physical sciences and social studies in any public high school of Pennsylvania. The teacher received notice March 19, 1937, that his position in the high school was declared vacant until the enrollment for the coming school year had been fully ascertained. The notice was given more than 60 days prior to the termination of the teacher's old contract. No other reason for declaring the teacher's position was going to be eliminated was given, nor did the school board hold a hearing before making the declaration. The enrollment of the school district was around 200, many of whom were drawn from outside districts, always an uncertain factor.
The teacher's dismissal was due to an increased enrollment in a four-year commercial course set up in the school, with a corresponding decrease in other departments; it was not because of a decrease in pupil population within the district.
Issue
Where there is a decrease in enrollment in various courses in a public school, so that teachers become unnecessary, but there is no decrease in the student population as a whole, is a school board obliged to employ such teachers though they have no pupils to teach?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
The situation arose in this manner: The school board and superintendent, prior to 1934, sent out questionnaires to parents, pupils and prospective pupils in the community, to determine the demand for a commercial training course in the Cherry Tree High School. The returns resulted in the installation of that department in the school starting with the first-year course, with additional studies in each successive year, until the full four-year course was taught. It was not intended to be a complete substitute for academic high school work, since pupils were not permitted to drop required subjects, but the course became increasingly popular each year and grew progressively. As the separate four-year classes filled up, the vast majority of pupils dropped all but the required subjects to take up the commercial course.
The school authorities, to advance the general education of the high school students, adopted a commercial course. It was a popular course, and as a natural result of this development, the enrollment in other courses suffered. Fewer teachers were required in them, and new teachers were needed in the commercial department, but the teachers could not qualify. If the court sustained the teacher's contention of a right to any position, the discretion accorded to school boards in their control over the courses of study would be severely limited and it would stagnate development in educational improvements. It is the administrative function of the school directors and superintendents to meet changing educational needs and conditions through the creation of new courses, reassignment of teachers, and rearrangement of curriculum.
The dismissed teacher's position cannot be brought into harmony with the general purpose of the School Code; on the contrary it materially obstructs that general purpose. It would transfer much of the discretion accorded to these administrative boards to the teachers, that they might preserve their positions indefinitely. It would impede advancement by stifling efforts to present new and varied courses to the children, and would deprive the schools of the benefit of elective courses to further the various interests of individual students. The teacher's interpretation of the law is incorrect. The Legislature's intent is to favor the public interest as against any private interest.
The Court decided that provision for termination upon a natural decrease in the number of students refers generally to enrollment in a course, school, or school district. When there is a decrease of students in a course due to the establishment of another department, such a decrease is one due to natural causes, and if a teacher is thereby rendered unnecessary to the proper operation of the school, his contract may be terminated.
The court decided there was no complaint that the school board acted arbitrarily from either personal or political motives, nor was there any evidence that in the assignment of teachers to the various courses, there as an unlawful method used to circumvent any provisions of the Tenure Act. It was evident that the teacher's professional services were not necessary for the proper conduct of the school. In the light of all the facts, the board acted impersonally, non-politically and in the best interest of the public to give a better, more efficient and more productive education to the children of the school district.
Significant points
1. The board has the right to control the courses of study aimed at educational improvements.
2. The Tenure Act is intended to favor the public interest as against any private interest.
3. Boards must act impersonally, non-politically, and in the best interests of the public to give a better, more efficient and more productive education to the children of the school district.
4. Teachers do not preserve their positions indefinitely.
5. It is the administrative function of the school board, superintendents and principals to meet changing educational needs and conditions through the creation of new courses, reassignment of teachers, and rearrangement of the curriculum.
6. Where there is a decrease of students in a course due to the establishment of another department, such a decrease is one due to natural causes, and if a teacher is thereby rendered unnecessary to the proper operation of the school, his contract may be terminated.
Revised statute
Source – Purdon's Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, page 528.
11-1124. Causes for suspension. Any board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employee, for any of the causes hereinafter enumerated: (1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district; (2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction; (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts, or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employees.
Implications for education
The board had the right to control the courses of study aimed at educational improvements. The revised statute is detailed and specific in reference to the curtailment of the educational program as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments.
Bragg v. School District of Swarthmore, 11 A.2d 152
Pennsylvania (1940)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – Laws of Pennsylvania, 1945 Statutes, pages 588-589.
No. 243, An Act. The General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania hereby enacts as follows: Section 1. Paragraph (d) of section one thousand two hundred five of the act, approved the eighteenth day of May, one thousand nine hundred eleven (Pamphlet Laws, three hundred nine), entitled, "An act to establish a public school system in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, together with the provisions by which it shall be administered, and prescribing penalties for the violation thereof; providing revenue to establish and maintain the same, and the method of collecting such revenue; and repealing all laws, general, special or local, or any parts thereof, that are or may be inconsistent therewith" as last amended by the act, approved the twentieth day of June, one thousand nine hundred and thirty-nine (Pamphlet Laws, four hundred eighty-two), is hereby further amended to read as follows: (d) Before any professional employee having attained a status of permanent tenure is dismissed or refused reelection by the board of school directors (or board of public education), the secretary of the school district shall furnish such professional employee with a detailed written statement of the charges upon which his or her dismissal or refusal of reelection is based, together with a written notice signed by the president and attested by the secretary of the board of school directors of a time and place when and where such professional employee will be given an opportunity to be heard either in person or by counsel, or both, before the board of school directors (or board of public education). Before any professional employee having attained a status of permanent tenure is dismissed by the board of school directors (or board of public education) such board of school directors (or board of public education) shall furnish such professional employee with a detailed written statement of the charges upon which his or her proposed dismissal is based, and shall conduct a hearing. A written notice signed by the president and attested by the secretary of the board of school directors shall be forwarded by registered mail to the professional employee, setting forth the time and place, when and where such professional employee will be given an opportunity to be heard, either in person or by counsel, or both, before the board of school directors, and setting forth a detailed statement of the charges as hereinbefore provided. Such hearing shall not be sooner than ten (10) days nor later than fifteen (15) days after such written notice. At such hearing all testimony offered, including that of complainants and their witnesses, as well as that of the accused professional employee and his or her witnesses, shall be recorded by a competent disinterested public stenographer whose services shall be furnished by the school district at its expense. Any such hearing may be postponed, continued or adjourned by agreement by the persons charged and the board of school directors (or board of public education).
Section 2. Paragraph (f) of section one thousand two hundred five of said act is hereby amended to read as follows: (f) After fully hearing the charges or complaints and hearing all witnesses produced by the board and the person against whom the charges are pending, and after full, impartial and unbiased consideration thereof, the board of school directors (or board of public education) shall by a two-thirds vote of all the members thereof, to be recorded by roll call, determine whether or not such charges or complaints have been sustained and whether the evidence substantiates such charges and complaints, and in accordance with such determination shall discharge (demote or refuse to reelect) such professional employee or shall retain such professional employee (or) and dismiss the complaint.
Overview
After a hearing, the board passed the resolution abandoning a room and terminating a teacher's employment since it "was in the best interests of the school district to give a more economical, efficient, productive and better education to all of its school children…." In other words, the school board terminated the elementary teacher protected under tenure, stating that her services were no longer necessary because of the elimination of the room in which she had been teaching. Elimination of the room in the school was made possible by distributing students to various other classes without exceeding the maximum load per teacher.
Issue
Can a teacher be terminated on grounds their services were no longer necessary because of a substantial decrease in student population in a room by distributing students to various other classes without exceeding the maximum load per teacher?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
The teacher's contract assured her a permanent position, unless her employment was suspended or terminated in accordance with the provisions of the Tenure Act. In the resolution dismissing the teacher, none of the statutory grounds were mentioned as the reason for terminating her contract. Instead, the Board loosely characterized the move as being "economical, efficient, productive…." The Court pointed out this amounted to saying that whenever the Board deems a teacher unnecessary for any reason whatever, the contract may be successfully terminated. The Court expressed this was not the intention of the Act; it was directly opposed to it. The purpose of the Tenure Act was "the maintenance of an adequate and competent teaching staff, free from political (and personal) or arbitrary interference, whereby capable and competent teachers might feel secure, and more efficiently perform their duty of instruction."
Finally, the elementary grade teacher position in the "Union Room" did not involve any particular department or course of study. Its curriculum was that of the regular elementary classes in the school district. Its elimination did not even amount to the abolition of a department or course, and the teacher's termination was without justification.
Significant points
1. The Board's attempt to terminate the teacher was unlawful. In the resolution dismissing the teacher, none of the statutory grounds were mentioned as the reason for terminating her contract. Instead, the Board loosely characterized the move as being "economical, efficient, productive and better education to all of its school children…."
2. The teacher's contract assured her a permanent position, unless her employment was suspended or terminated in accordance with the provisions of the Teachers' Tenure Act.
Revised statute
Source – Purdon's Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, pages 493-494.
11-1121. Contracts; execution; form. In all school districts, all contracts with professional employees shall be in writing, in duplicate, and shall be executed on behalf of the board of school directors by the president and secretary and signed by the professional employee.
Each board of school directors in all school districts shall hereafter enter into contracts, in writing, with each professional employee who has satisfactorily completed two (2) years of service in any school district of this Commonwealth. Said contracts shall contain only the follows:
"IT IS AGREED by and between…Professional Employee, and the Board of Directors (or Board of Public Education) of the school district of…, Pennsylvania, that said professional employee shall, under the authority of the said board and its successors, and subject to the supervision and authority of the properly authorized superintendent of schools or supervising principal, serve as a professional employee in the said school district for a term of … , months, for an annual compensation of $ … , payable monthly or semi-monthly during the school term or year, less the contribution required by law to be paid to the Public School Employes' Retirement Fund, and less other proper deductions for loss of time."
"This contract is subject to the provisions of the 'Public School Code of 1949' and the amendments thereto."
"AND IT IS FURTHER AGREED by the parties hereto that none of the provisions of this act may be waived either orally or in writing, and that this contract shall continue in force year after year, with the right of the board of school directors (or board of public education) to increase the compensation over the compensation herein stated, from time to time, as may be provided under the provisions and proper operation of the established salary schedule, if any, for the school district, subject to the provisions of law, without invalidating any other provision of this contract, unless terminated by the professional employee by written resignation presented sixty (60) days before resignation becomes effective, or by the board of school directors (or board of public education) by official written notice presented to the professional employee: Provided, That the said notice shall designate the cause for the termination and shall state that an opportunity to be heard shall be granted if the said professional employee, within ten (10) days after receipt of the termination notice, presents a written request for such a hearing."
Implications for education
The Board's attempt to terminate the services of the teacher was invalid. The Board loosely characterized the move as being economical, efficient, productive, etc. The Board should have been specific and concise, taking into immediate consideration the Teachers' Tenure Act.
Streibert v. Board of Directors, 14 A.2d 303
Pennsylvania (1940)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – Laws of Pennsylvania 1939, page 486.
Section 1205(b). Whenever it shall become necessary to decrease the number of professional employees by reason of substantial decrease of pupil population within the school district, the board of school directors (or board of public education) may suspend the necessary number of professional employees, for the causes hereinafter enumerated (but only in the inverse order of the appointment of such employees):
(1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district;
(2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors (or board of public education), approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction;
(3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts, or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employees.
Whenever a board of school directors (or board of public education) decreases the size of the staff of professional employees under the provisions of this act, the suspensions to be made shall be determined by the county superintendent of schools or the district superintendent, as the case may be, on the basis of efficiency rank determined by ratings made in accordance with standards and regulations, determined by rating cards prepared by the Department of Public Instruction. It shall hereafter be the duty of boards of school directors to cause to be established a permanent record system, containing ratings for each teacher employed within the district, and copies of all ratings for the year shall be transmitted to the teacher upon his or her request, or, if any rating during the year is unsatisfactory, a copy of same shall be transmitted to the teacher concerned. No teacher shall be dismissed under this act unless such rating records have been kept on file by the board of school directors.
In cases in which suspensions are to be made, professional employees shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights where no differences in rating are found. Seniority rights shall also prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating. In cases where there are substantial differences in rating of those under consideration for suspension, seniority shall be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in the rating cards hereinbefore referred to: Provided, That in cases in which suspensions are to be made during the school term immediately following the effective date of this act, professional employees shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights.
No employee suspended as aforesaid shall be prevented from engaging in other occupation during the period of such suspension. Such professional employees shall be reinstated in the inverse order of their suspension. No new appointment shall be made while there are suspended professional employees available, who are properly certified to fill such vacancies.
Overview
The teacher was the Dean of Girls in the Senior High School in the City of York, effective April 6, 1937. Soon thereafter the School Board issued her a contract to continue in force year after year, employing her as a "professional employee" at an annual salary of $2,500. Almost a year later, in March 1938, in the interest of efficient and economical school administration, the School Board abolished the position of Dean of Girls, and at the same time elected the teacher for the following year, she being duly certified to teach History, Chemistry, English and German. She was notified of this action and informed that her contract was terminated and that she was required to sign a new contract as a "professional employee" at a salary of $2,200 a year. This she refused to do, claiming that her contract was in full force and could not be terminated in this way. The School Board would not allow her to teach until she had complied with its direction. She reported for duty and was continuously able and willing to serve, but remained unemployed because of not signing the new contract.
Issue
In the interest of efficient and economical school administration, can a school board abolish the position of Dean of Girls and at the same time elect the teacher previously filling that position, to another position within the school?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
The School Board contended that the contract was terminated by its action in abolishing the office of Dean of Girls. This result did not follow because in that position the teachers was a "regular full-time employee" of the School District, "duly certified as a teacher," and as such entitled to enjoy the safeguards accorded professional employees under the Teachers' Tenure Act. The mere abolition of the office of Dean of Girls did not terminate the teacher's contract under the circumstances. While her salary was subject to reduction for proper reasons, such action could only be taken in compliance with the provisions of the Teachers' Tenure Act. In conclusion, the teacher was not arbitrary or unreasonable in refusing to sign a new contract. She should not have been asked to do so. If she was given way to the insistence of the School Board, all her rights under the old contract would have been swept away, not the least valuable of which was the guarantee of her seniority rights under the School Code, in event of a suspension because of substantial decrease of pupil population within the School District. After years of service she would have been thus reduced to a footing with new professional employees, who had just signed contracts. In view of this and the present economic conditions, it was natural and proper for her to object to any illegal action which would make the possibility of suspension more imminent.
Significant points
1. The board may not abolish an office such as the Dean of Girls and thereby dismiss a teacher protected by the Teachers' Tenure Act. The mere abolition of the office does not terminate the teacher's contract; such action can only be taken in compliance with the provisions of the Teachers' Tenure Act.
2. The teacher was asked to sign a new contract for another position but refused. If she had given way to the insistence of the School Board, all her rights under the old contract would have been swept away, not the least valuable of which was the guarantee of her seniority rights under the Tenure Act.
Revised statute
Source – Purdon's Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, page 528.
11-1124. Causes for suspension. Any board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employees, for any of the causes hereinafter enumerated: (1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district; (2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction; (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employees.
Implications for education
The board could not abolish the office of the Dean of Girls and dismiss the teacher, especially one protected by the Teachers' Tenure Act. The termination of the teacher's contract can only be taken in compliance with the provisions within the Teachers' Tenure Act.
The teacher should not have been asked to sign a new contract, since if she had, all seniority rights under the old contract would have been lost. The guarantee of the teacher's seniority rights under the teachers' Tenure Act is a major focal point in the case.
Miller v. Stoudnour, 265 A.2d 113
Pennsylvania (1942)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – Laws of Pennsylvania, 1945 Statutes, No. 243, An Act, pages 588-589.
The General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania hereby enacts as follows:
Section 1. Paragraph (d) of section one thousand two hundred five of the act, approved the eighteenth day of May, one thousand nine hundred eleven (Pamphlet Laws, three hundred nine), entitled "An act to establish a public school system in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, together with the provisions by which it shall be administered, and prescribing penalties for the violation thereof; providing revenue to establish and maintain the same, and the method of collecting such revenue; and repealing all laws, general, special or local, or any parts thereof, that are or may be inconsistent therewith" as last amended by the act, approved the twentieth day of June, one thousand nine hundred thirty-nine (Pamphlet Laws, four hundred eighty-two), is hereby further amended to read as follows: (d) Before any professional employee having attained a status of permanent tenure is dismissed or refused reelection by the board of school directors (or board of public education), the secretary of the school district shall furnish such professional employee with a detailed written statement of the charges upon which his or her dismissal or refusal of reelection is based, together with a written notice signed by the president and attested by the secretary of the board of school directors of a time and place when and where such professional employee will be given an opportunity to be heard either in person or by counsel, or both, before the board of school directors (or board of public education). Before any professional employee having attained a status of permanent tenure is dismissed by the board of school directors (or board of public education) such board of school directors (or board of public education) must furnish such professional employee with a detailed written statement of the charges upon which his or her proposed dismissal is based, and shall conduct a hearing. A written notice signed by the president and attested by the secretary of the board of school directors shall be forwarded by registered mail to the professional employee, setting forth the time and place, when and where such professional employee will be given an opportunity to be heard, either in person or by counsel, or both, before the board of school directors, and setting forth a detailed statement of the charges as hereinbefore provided. Such hearing shall not be sooner than ten (10) days or later than fifteen (15) days after such written notice. At such hearing all testimony offered, including that of complainants and their witnesses, as well as that of the accused professional employee and his or her witnesses, shall be recorded by a competent disinterested public stenographer whose services shall be furnished by the school district at its expense. Any such hearing may be postponed, continued or adjourned by agreement by the persons charged and the board of school directors (or board of public education).
Section 12. Paragraph (f) of section one thousand two hundred five of said act is hereby amended to read as follows: (f) After fully hearing the charges or complaints and hearing all witnesses produced by the board and the person against whom the charges are pending, and after full, impartial and unbiased consideration thereof, the board of school directors (or board of public education) shall by a two-thirds vote of all the members thereof, to be recorded by roll call, determine whether or not such charges or complaints have been sustained and whether the evidence substantiates such charges and complaints, and in accordance with such determination shall discharge (demote or refuse to reelect) such professional employee or shall retain such professional employee (or) and dismiss the complaint.
Overview
Under contract dated May 27, 1937, the teacher became protected under the Teachers’ Tenure Act. The teacher taught science, including chemistry, physics and physical science, in the district for the school year 1937-1938. He also taught in the same school district during the school year 1936-1937, although no written contract for that period was produced in evidence. He was informed by correspondence, which began on February 21, 1938, that the school board considered it necessary to eliminate one teacher in the high school; that the vacancy had to be made in the science department due to the limited number of students taking science; and that the teacher’s position as last instructor hired in that department would be discontinued at the end of the school term. No charges were made, and no opportunity for a hearing before the board was afforded him.
Issue
Can a teacher with tenure have their contract discontinued because of economic stress and a limited number of students taking a course?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
There was ample evidence plainly indicating that the school district was financially embarrassed, and that a reduction in expenditures was necessary. The teacher contended that the board did not adhere to the procedural requirements of the Teachers’ Tenure Act and that there were additional reasons for the board’s action. The court found that the board did not act for any political or arbitrary reasons, but because of the financial condition of the school district. Courts must assume that persons holding responsible public positions act in good faith, until the contrary is shown. There was no support in the evidence for the teacher’s vague assertions relative to additional reasons for the board’s action. The evidence was to the contrary. The school district had borrowed to its legal limit. It also appeared that the average pupil load in this district was 18.3 per teacher, whereas the average in all Pennsylvania districts at the time was 30 to 35. The reduction in the number of teachers would not lower the efficiency of the schools of this district, and in view of the other facts related the board would seem to have exercised sound judgment in the action taken. A school board may abolish, discontinue, or reorganize a department for financial reasons, if its action does not interfere with the branches prescribed to be taught. If a teacher must be retained under any circumstances, then the board would have no control over the school district's finances or over school policy. There were no charges against the teacher. Consequently, no hearing was required, as the board, in eliminating a separate science department and in rearranging the courses of study because of financial necessity, was acting within its authority to control educational policies and the finances of the school district.
Significant points
1. When evidence indicated a school district was financially embarrassed, and that a reduction in expenditures is necessary, the board may act to correct the condition of the school district, as long as it does not act for any political or arbitrary reasons.
2. Courts assume that persons holding responsible public positions act in good faith, until the contrary is shown.
3. A school board may abolish, discontinue, or re-organize a department for financial reasons, if its action does not interfere with the course prescribed to be taught.
4. Where there were no charges against the teacher, no hearing was required, as the board, in eliminating the separate department and in rearranging the course of study because of financial necessity, was acting within the authority to control educational policies and the finances of the school district.
Revised statute
Source – Purdon's Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, pages 493-494.
11-1121. Contracts; execution, form. In all school districts, all contracts with professional employees shall be in writing, in duplicate, and shall be executed on behalf of the board of school directors by the president and secretary and signed by the professional employee.
Each board of school directors in all school districts shall hereafter enter into contracts, in writing, with each professional employee who has satisfactorily completed two (2) years of service in any school district of this Commonwealth. Said contracts shall contain only the following:
"IT IS AGREED by and between … Professional Employe, and the Board of Directors (or Board of Public Education) of the district of …, Pennsylvania, that said professional employe shall, under the authority of the said board and its successors, and subject to the supervision and authority of the properly authorized superintendent of schools or supervising principal, serve as a professional employe in the said school district for a term of … months, for an annual compensation of … months, for an annual compensation of $… payable monthly or semi-monthly during the school term or year, less the contribution required by law to be paid to the Public School Employes' Retirement Fund, and less other proper deductions for loss of time.
"This contract is subject to the provisions of the 'Public School Code of 1949' and the amendments thereto.
"AND IT IS FURTHER AGREED by the parties hereto that none of the provisions of this act may be waived either orally or in writing, and that this contract shall continue in force year after year, with the right of the board of school directors (or board of public education) to increase the compensation over the compensation herein stated, from time to time, as may be provided under the provisions and proper operation of the established salary schedule, if any, for the school district, subject to the provisions of law, without invalidating any other provision of this contract, unless terminated by the professional employe by written resignation presented sixty (60) days before resignation becomes effective, or by the board of school directors (or board of public education) by official written notice presented to the professional employe: Provided, That the said notice shall designate the cause for the termination and shall state that an opportunity to be heard shall be granted if the said professional employe, within ten (10) days after receipt of the termination notice, presents a written request for such a hearing."
Implications for education
Under the revised statute, professional employees come under the authority of the board, subject to the supervision and authority of the superintendent or supervising principal. The statute gives the board the power to assign teachers and it also provides specific procedures for the termination of their contracts.
When evidence indicates the school district was financially embarrassed, and that a reduction in expenditures was necessary, the board was justified in acting to correct the condition of the school district, as long as it did not act for any political or arbitrary reasons.
Since the board had the authority to assign teachers, the board definitely had the power to abolish, discontinue or reorganize a department for financial reasons, as long as the board considered the seniority rights guaranteed to employees under the Teachers' Tenure Act.
Frank v. Meigs County Board of Education,
44 N.E.2d 455 Ohio (1942)
Statutes appropriate to case
Source – Laws of Ohio, Volume 119-1941
Sec. 7690-6l. Termination of contract by board; grounds; notice; hearing; decision; appeal; pages 454,455,456. The contract of a teacher may not be terminated except for gross inefficiency or immorality; for willful and persistent violations of reasonable regulations of the board of education; or for other good and just cause. Before terminating any contract, the employing board of education shall furnish the teacher a written notice signed by its clerk of its intention to consider the termination of his/her contract with full specification of the ground or grounds for such consideration. Unless the teacher so notified shall, within ten days subsequent to the receipt of such notice, demand in writing an opportunity to appear before the board and offer reasons against such termination, the board may proceed with formal action to terminate the contract. If, however, said teacher shall, within ten days after receipt of notice from the clerk of the board, demand in writing a hearing before said board, the board shall set a time for the hearing within thirty days from the date of said written demand and the clerk of the board shall give the teacher at least fifteen days' notice in writing of the time and place of such hearing; provided, however, that no hearing shall be held during the summer vacation without the teacher's consent. Such hearing shall be private unless the teacher requests a public hearing. The hearing shall be conducted by a majority of the members of the board and be confined to the aforesaid ground or grounds for such termination. The board of education shall provide for a complete stenographic record of the proceedings, a copy of such record to be furnished to the teacher. The board of education may suspend a teacher pending final action to terminate her contract if, in its judgment, the character of the charges warrants such action.
Both parties shall have the right to be present at such hearing, to be represented by counsel, to require witnesses to be under oath, to cross-examine witnesses, to take a record of the proceedings, and to require the presence of witnesses in their behalf upon subpoena to be issued by the clerk of the board. In case of the failure of any person to comply with a subpoena, a common pleas judge of the county in which the person resides, upon application of any interested party, shall compel attendance of the person by attachment proceedings as for contempt. Any member of the board of education shall have power to administer oaths to witnesses. After hearing, the board by majority vote may enter upon its minutes an order of termination. If the decision of the board, after hearing, is against termination of the contract, the charges and the record of the hearing shall be physically expunged from the minutes and, if the teacher has been suspended, she shall be paid full salary for the period of such suspension.
Any teacher affected by an order of termination of contract shall have the right of appeal to the court of common pleas of the county in which the school is located within thirty days after receipt of notice of the entry of
such order. Such appeal shall be an original action in said common pleas court and shall be commenced by the filing of a petition against such board of education, in which petition the facts shall be alleged upon which the teacher relies for a reversal or modification of such order of termination of contract. Upon service or waiver of summons in said appeal, such board of education shall forthwith transmit to the clerk of said common pleas court for filing a transcript of the original papers theretofore filed with said board and a certified transcript of all evidence adduced at the hearing or hearings before such board, whereupon the cause shall be at issue without further pleading and shall be advanced and heard without delay. The common pleas court shall examine the transcript and record of the hearing before the board of education and shall hold such additional hearings as it may deem advisable, at which it may consider other evidence in addition to such transcript and record.
Upon final hearing, the common pleas court shall grant or deny the relief prayed for in the petition as may be proper under the provisions of this act and in accordance with the evidence adduced in the hearing. Such an action shall be deemed to be a special proceeding within the purview of section 12223-2 of the General Code and either the teacher or the board of education may appeal therefrom. In any court action the board of education may utilize the services of the prosecuting attorney or city solicitor as authorized by section 4761 of the General Code, or may employ other legal counsel if it deems it necessary.
Sec. 7690-7. Reduction in number of teachers; procedure, page 456. When by reason of decreased enrollment of pupils, or by reason of suspension of schools or territorial changes affecting the district, a board of education decides that it will be necessary to reduce the number of teachers, it shall have full authority to make reasonable reduction. But, in making such reduction, the board shall proceed to suspend contracts in accordance with the recommendation of the superintendent of schools who shall, within each teaching field affected, give preference to teachers on continuing contracts and to teachers who have greater seniority. Teachers whose continuing contracts are suspended shall have the right of restoration to continuing service status in the order of seniority of service in the district if and when teaching positions become vacant or are created for which any of such teachers are or become qualified.
Overview
The teacher was continuously employed as a teacher in the public schools of Meigs County for a period of 13 years prior to the date of his first employment as assistant county superintendent of schools on March 16, 1940. During all of his period of service as a teacher in the public schools of Meigs County, he was under the supervision of the county superintendent of schools. During his term of service as assistant county superintendent of schools he assisted in the supervision of the teachers of the schools throughout the county, including assistance in the supervision of school transportation in the county public schools.
According to the records of the state department of education, the average daily attendance in the public school system of the county between the years 1935 and 1941 decreased by 586; that the funds available from the state for such schools had decreased from $214,561.75 in 1936 to $193,185.80 in 1942; that the annual financial reports filed by the superintendent of schools with the department of education showed that all the rural school districts in Meigs County had deficits, the total of which had increased from $20,213.78 in 1936 to $88,802.23 in 1940. According to the official education directory for the school year 1941-1942 only 24 of the 88 counties in the state employed assistant county superintendents of schools.
On March 21, 1942, the board adopted a resolution to the effect that as a matter of economy the position of assistant county superintendent of schools was abolished, to take effect on July 1, 1942. The assistant superintendent was notified that he would not be reemployed and that the position of assistant county superintendent of schools had been abolished.
Issue
Because of reduced school enrollment with consequent reduction of school revenues and by necessary requirements of economy, can a County Board of Education, after having created the position of county superintendent of schools, abolish the position and terminate the contract of the person holding the position?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
The sole claim the dismissed assistant county superintendent argued was that the Board lacked the power to abolish the position and to terminate the contract. The Board contended that their action to terminate the contract was motivated by a reduced school enrollment with consequent reduction of school revenues and by the necessary requirements of economy. The facts supported the Board's contentions. To hold that a county board of education, having once established a position in the county public schools, has no power under the law to abolish it, even though there be a sufficient cause, would, in the opinion of the court, seriously challenge the constitutionality of the law itself. The dismissed assistant county superintendent of schools sought action to require the board to enter into a continuing contract with him for a special position in the school system, which requires him to show that he had a clear legal right to a position. In the opinion of the court, he had not shown any legal right to a position.
Significant points
1. The Board is able to take action to terminate the contract of an assistant county superintendent of schools when it is motivated by a reduced school enrollment with consequent reduction of school revenues and by the necessary requirements of economy.
Revised statute
Source – Pages Ohio Revised Code Annotated, Titles 33, Education, Libraries.
3319.16. Termination of contract by board of education, pages 270-271. The contract of a teacher may not be terminated except for gross inefficiency or immorality; for willful and persistent violations of reasonable regulations of the board of education; or for other good and just cause. Before terminating any contract, the employing board shall furnish the teacher a written notice signed by its clerk of its intention to consider the termination of his contract with full specification of the grounds for such consideration. Such board shall not proceed with formal action to terminate the contract until after the tenth day after receipt of such notice by the teacher. Within ten days after receipt of such notice from the clerk of the board, the teacher may file with the clerk a written demand for a hearing before the board or before a referee, and the board shall set a time for the hearing which shall be within thirty days from the date of receipt of the written demand, and the clerk shall give the teacher at least twenty days' notice in writing of the time and place of such hearing. If a referee is demanded by either the teacher or board, the clerk shall also give twenty days' notice to the superintendent of public instruction. No hearing shall be held during the summer vacation without the teacher's consent. Such hearing shall be private unless the teacher requests a public hearing. The hearing shall be conducted by a referee appointed pursuant to section 3319.161 (3319.16.1) of the Revised Code, if demanded; otherwise, it shall be conducted by a majority of the members of the board and shall be confined to the grounds given for such termination. The board shall provide for a complete stenographic record of the proceedings, a copy of such record to be furnished to the teacher. The board may suspend a teacher pending final action to terminate his contract if, in its judgment, the character of the charges warrants such action.
Both parties may be present at such hearing, be represented by counsel, require witnesses to be under oath, cross-examine witnesses, take a record of the proceedings, and require the presence of witnesses in their behalf upon subpoena to be issued by the clerk of the board. In case of the failure of any person to comply with a subpoena, a common pleas judge of the county in which the person resides, upon application of any interested party, shall compel attendance of the person by attachment proceedings as for contempt. Any member of the board or the referee may administer oaths to witnesses. After a hearing by a referee, the referee shall file his/her report within ten days after the termination of the hearing. After consideration of the referee's report, the board by a majority vote may accept or reject the referee's recommendation on the termination of the teacher's contract. After a hearing by the board, the board by majority vote may enter its determination upon its minutes. Any order of termination of a contract shall state the grounds for termination. If the decision, after hearing, is against termination of the contract, the charges and the record of the hearing shall be physically expunged from the minutes, and if the teacher has suffered any loss of salary by reason of being suspended, she shall be paid the full salary for the period of such suspension.
Any teacher affected by an order of termination of contract may appeal to the court of common pleas of the county in which the school is located within thirty days after receipt of notice of the entry of such order. Such appeal shall be an original action in said court and shall be commenced by the filing of a petition against such board, in which petition the facts shall be alleged upon which the teacher relies for a reversal or modification of such order of termination of contract. Upon service or waiver of summons in said appeal, such board shall immediately transmit to the clerk of said court for filing a transcript of the original papers filed with the boards, a certified copy of the minutes of the board into which the termination finding was entered, and a certified transcript of all evidence adduced at the hearing or hearings before such board or a certified transcript of all evidence adduced at the hearing or hearings before the referee, whereupon the cause shall be at issue without further pleading and shall be advanced and heard without delay. The court shall examine the transcript and record of the hearing and shall hold such additional hearings as it deems advisable, at which it may consider other evidence in addition to such transcript and record.
Upon final hearing, the court shall grant or deny the relief prayed for in the petition as may be proper in accordance with the evidence adduced in the hearing. Such an action is a special proceeding within the purview of section 2505.02 of the Revised Code and either the teacher or the board may appeal therefrom.
In any court action the board may utilize the services of the prosecuting attorney or city solicitor as authorized by section 3313.35 of the Revised Code, or may employ other legal counsel.
3319.17. Reduction in number of teachers; restoration; page 274. When by reason of decreased enrollment of pupils, return to duty of regular teachers after leaves of absence, or by reason of suspension of schools or territorial changes affecting the district, a board of education decides that it will be necessary to reduce the number of teachers, it may make a reasonable reduction. In making such reduction, the board shall proceed to suspend contracts in accordance with the recommendation of the superintendent of schools who shall, within each teaching field affected, give preference to teachers on continuing contracts and to teachers who have greater seniority. Teachers whose continuing contracts are suspended shall have the right of restoration to continuing service status in the order of seniority of service in the district if and when teaching positions become vacant or are created for which any of such teachers are or become qualified.
Implications for education
The Board was able to take action to terminate the contract of the assistant county superintendent when it was motivated by a reduced school enrollment with consequent reduction of school revenues and by the necessary requirements of economy. Evidently the assistant county superintendent was no longer considered a part of the teaching force and did not retain seniority rights as a teacher.
Munley v. School District of City of Pittston,
37 Luzerne Leg. Reg R251 Pennsylvania (1943)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – Laws of Pennsylvania 1939, page 386.
Section 1205(b). Whenever it shall become necessary to decrease the number of professional employes by reason of substantial decrease of pupil population within the school district, the board of school directors (or board of public education) may suspend the causes hereinafter enumerated (but only in the inverse order of the appointment of such employes): (1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district; (2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors (or board of public education), approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction; (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts, or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Whenever a board of school directors (or board of public education) decreases the size of the staff of professional employes under the provisions of this act, the suspensions to be made shall be determined by the county superintendent of schools or the district superintendent, as the case may be, on the basis of efficiency rank determined by ratings made in accordance with standards and regulations, determined by rating cards prepared by the Department of Public Instruction. It shall hereafter be the duty of boards of school directors to cause to be established a permanent record system, containing ratings for each teacher employed within the district, and copies of all ratings for the year shall be transmitted to the teacher upon his or her request, or, if any rating during the year is unsatisfactory, a copy of same shall be transmitted to the teacher concerned. No teacher shall be dismissed under this act unless such rating records have been kept on file by the board of school directors.
In cases in which suspensions are to be made, professional employes shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights where no differences in rating are found. Seniority rights shall also prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating. In cases where there are substantial differences in rating of those under consideration for suspension, seniority shall be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in the rating cards hereinbefore referred to: Provide, That in cases in which suspensions are to be made during the school term immediately following the effective date of this act, professional employes shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights.
No employe suspended as aforesaid shall be prevented from engaging in any other occupation during the period of such suspension. Such professional employes shall be reinstated in the inverse order of their suspension. No new appointment shall be made while there are suspended professional employes available, who are properly certified to fill such vacancies.
Overview
The teacher had been terminated as a professional employee and she sought reinstatement on the grounds that the board of education had violated the Teachers' Tenure Act and the written contract. At the time of her termination, the board had terminated several other teachers with the approval of the superintendent of public instruction and the state department. The terminations were because of large shrinkage in the number of pupils, and that the terminations were enjoined upon the board of education as preliminary to allocation of funds to the district by the State.
Issue
As a preliminary measure to the allocation of funds by the State and with the approval of the superintendent of public instruction, can a board of education terminate teachers because of a large shrinkage in the number of pupils in the district?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
All teachers were terminated on the basis of seniority. The teacher bringing legal action against the board contended at the hearing that her suspension was unlawful since it was not prompted by a "substantial" decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district as specified in the School Code. This contention of the teacher was not substantiated by the testimony. On the contrary, it was shown by the enrollment record from 1932 to 1942, that the total enrollment in the entire school district progressively declined from a high 4,402 in 1934 to a low of 3,012 in 1942.
The Court expressed that whatever may have been the motive of the board in removing the teachers, there was nothing whatever in the record to indicate bad faith or an abuse of discretion or any ulterior motive in the passage of the resolution to terminate the teachers. The testimony was uncontradicted that it was an act entirely within the sound discretion of the board of education, that it was based upon a substantial falling off in the enrollment of pupils and that it was necessary in compliance with the approval of the superintendent of public instruction's direction in order to obtain the financial help of which the district was in need.
Significant points
1. The Court expressed that whatever may have been the motive of the board in removing the teachers, there was nothing whatever in the record to indicate bad faith or an abuse of discretion or any ulterior motive in the passage of the resolution to terminate the teacher.
2. The decision was entirely within the sound discretion of the board of education, that it was based upon a substantial falling off in the enrollment of pupils and that it was necessary in compliance with the approval of the superintendent of public instruction's direction in order to obtain the financial help of which the district was in need.
Revised statute
Source – Purdon's Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, page 528.
11-1124. Causes for suspension. Any board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for any of the causes hereinafter enumerated: (1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district; (2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards or organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction; (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Implications for education
All teachers were terminated on the basis of seniority. The decision was entirely within the sound discretion of the board of education. It was based on a substantial falling off in the enrollment of pupils and it was necessary in compliance with the approval of the Superintendent of Public Instruction's direction in order to obtain the financial help of which the district was in need. Although the decision to terminate the employees' contracts was entirely within the sound discretion of the board, the board definitely had to consider the seniority rights guaranteed to employees under the Teachers' Tenure Act. Having taken into consideration the seniority rights of employees under the Teachers' Tenure Act, the terminations were within the discretionary powers of the board in compliance with the superintendent of public instruction. This case and Miller v. Stoudnour reaffirm that boards must consider the seniority rights guaranteed to employees under the Teachers' Tenure Act.
Ging v. Board of Education of Duluth,
7 N.W.2d 544 Minnesota (1943)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – Minnesota Statutes Volume 1, 1941, page 483.
130.25 Grounds for discharge or demotion. Causes for the discharge or demotion of a teacher wither during or after the probationary period shall be: (1) Immoral character, conduct unbecoming a teacher, or insubordination; (2) Failure without justifiable cause to teach without first securing the written release of the school board or commissioner having the care, management, or control of the school in which the teacher is employed; (3) Inefficiency in teaching or in the management of the school; (4) Affliction with active tuberculosis or other communicable disease shall be considered as cause for removal or suspension while the teacher is suffering from such disability; or (5) Discontinuance of position or lack of pupils.
Overview
Both teachers had acquired permanent status under the Teachers' Tenure Act. Teacher A taught for 32 years at the High School and was the head of the social science department. He had taught in the same classroom for 25 continuous years until his discharge. Teacher B had been a primary teacher and during her 40 years she was assigned exclusively to the primary grades of an elementary school. On August 20, 1941, both teachers were notified of suspension from duty and served with a notice of hearing before the board of education on charges by the superintendent of schools that "on account of lack of pupils and reduction in enrollment of pupils in the schools of said School District, the position of…(teacher's name), a teacher of said School District, has necessarily been discontinued and there is no position in said School District to which said teacher…(teacher's name), can be assigned." The hearings on the charges were consolidated by consent. On September 23, 1941, separate decisions by the board were filed and forwarded to each teacher, indicating their teaching positions had been discontinued on account of lack of pupils in the schools of the district.
Issue
When decrease in enrollment of pupils necessitates a reduction of teaching staff, can the school board retain younger teachers and discharge older teachers?
Decision
Court decided for the teachers.
Characteristics of the decision
Unless Teacher A's position as head of the social science department and teacher of sociology and history was discontinued, the board had no right to demote or discharge him. Here the only charge against him was that his position as a "teacher of said School District has necessarily been discontinued," and the board's findings and decision were that his position "as teacher of said district" was discontinued. Not only were the charges wrong, but evidence was lacking to show that the position of teacher was in fact discontinued.
Likewise, in the case of Teacher B, the charges against her were made on the theory that her position was that of a teacher in the school district; yet it conclusively appeared that during her entire 40 years she was assigned exclusively to the primary grades of an elementary school. When a teacher has been assigned to the teaching in the primary grades for a period sufficient to establish tenure rights, she should have priority over teachers from the intermediate grades although the tenure rights of each are the same. Once a teacher has acquired a position as a primary teacher, the transfer of teachers from the upper grades to fill a position which would otherwise be hers is clearly arbitrary and based upon an erroneous theory of law.
To justify Teacher B's dismissal on the ground of discontinuance of position, it is not sufficient to establish merely a lack of pupils in the school district as a whole or a reduction in the number of teaching positions in the schools, but it was necessary to establish that the position which she held in the primary grades had been discontinued or that the number of such positions in the entire district had been necessarily reduced so as to require a reduction in the number of primary teachers having tenure rights. The board could not, on the basis of the loss of enrollment in the school district as a whole, shift its teachers from position to position in disregard of the rights of tenure teachers.
Granting that the board had the right to reduce the number of teachers in the primary grades on account of lack of pupils, the tenure law would be a mere gesture if teachers holding positions in the intermediate or high school grades could be transferred to the primary grades in disregard of the rights of a teacher with tenure rights holding a position in the primary grades. If after procuring voluntary retirements there remained a position in the primary grades for Teacher B, she was clearly entitled to the position against any claim of tenure teachers whose position up to that time had been in the intermediate or high school grades.
The Court pointed out that it would have been perfectly proper for the board to consider seniority and experience in giving preference to an older teacher over a younger one; but if the board in good faith adopted the contrary yardstick and determined that younger teachers should have the call because of greater vigor or because of their more recent completion of modern courses in their particular fields, no Court could set aside any such decision on the ground of error of judgment on the part of the board. The board might consider that the employment of younger teachers would result in substantial savings to the taxpayers because of the lower rate of pay to the younger teachers. Further, the Court expressed that schools are not industries, but a sound education policy might well dictate that the younger, more vigorous, and more recently graduated teachers with modern methods be preferred over the older teachers whose vigor has declined and whose own training and specialized study have not in all cases been kept up to date.
Significant points
1. Unless the teacher's position as head of the department and teacher of sociology and history was discontinued, the board had no right to demote or discharge him.
2. The board made wrong charges and evidence was lacking to show that the position of teacher was in fact discontinued.
3. When a teacher has been assigned to the teaching of primary grades for a period sufficient to establish tenure rights, she should have priority over teachers from the intermediate or high school grades although the tenure rights of each are the same.
4. Once a teacher has acquired a position as a primary teacher, the transfer of teachers from the upper grades to fill a position which would otherwise be hers is clearly arbitrary and based upon an erroneous theory of law.
5. To justify a teacher's dismissal on the ground of discontinuance of position, it was necessary to establish that the position which she held in the primary grades had been discontinued or that the number of such positions in the entire district had been necessarily reduced so as to require a reduction in the number of primary teachers having tenure rights.
6. The board could not, on the basis of the loss of pupil enrollment in the school district as a whole, shift its teachers from position to position in disregard of the rights of tenure teachers.
7. It would have been perfectly proper for the board to consider seniority and experience in giving preference to an older teacher over a younger one, but if the board in good faith adopted the contrary yardstick and determined that younger teachers should have the call because of their more recent completion of modern courses in their particular fields, no court could set aside any such decision on the ground of error of judgment on the part of the board. The board might consider that the employment of younger teachers would result in substantial savings to the taxpayers because of the lower rate of pay to the younger teachers.
8. The Court expressed that schools are not industries, but a sound educational policy might well dictate that the younger, more vigorous, and more recently graduated teachers with modern methods be preferred over the older teachers whose vigor has declined and whose own training and specialized study have not in all cases been kept up to date.
Revised statute
Source – Minnesota Statutes Annotated 10A, Sections 124-143. 125.17 Teacher tenure act; cities of the first class; definitions, pages 182-184.
Subdivision 1. Words, terms and phrases. Unless the language or context clearly indicates that a different meaning is intended, the following words, terms, and phrases, for the purposes of the following subdivisions in this section, shall be defined as follows:
(a) Teachers. The term "teacher" includes every person regularly employed, as a principal, or to give instruction in a classroom, or to superintend or supervise classroom instruction, or as placement teacher and visiting teacher. Persons regularly employed as counselors and school librarians shall be covered by these sections as teachers if certificated as teachers or as school librarians.
(b) School board. The term "school board" includes a majority in membership of any and all boards or official bodies having the care, management, or control over public schools.
(c) Demote. The word "demote" means to reduce in rank or to transfer to a lower branch of the service or to a position carrying a lower salary or compensation.
Subdivision 2. Probationary period; discharge or demotion. All teachers in the public schools in cities of the first class during the first three years of consecutive employment shall be deemed to be in a probationary period of employment during which period any annual contract with any teacher may, or may not, be renewed as the school board shall see fit. The school board may, during such probationary period, discharge or demote a teacher for any of the causes as specified in this code. A written statement of the cause of such discharge or demotion shall be given to the teacher by the school board at least 30 days before such removal or demotion shall become effective, and the teacher so notified shall have no right of appeal therefrom.
Subdivision 3. Period of service after probationary period; discharge or demotion. After the completion of such probationary period, without discharge, such teachers as are thereupon re-employed shall continue in service and hold their respective position during good behavior and efficient and competent service and shall not be discharged or demoted except for cause after a hearing.
Any probationary teacher shall be deemed to have been re-employed for the ensuing school year, unless the school board in charge of such school shall give such teacher notice in writing before April 1 of the termination of such employment. In event of such notice the employment shall terminate at the close of the school sessions of the current school year.
Subdivision 4. Grounds for discharge or demotion. Causes for the discharge or demotion of a teacher either during or after the probationary period shall be: (1) Immoral character, conduct unbecoming a teacher, or insubordination; (2) Failure without justifiable cause to teach without first securing the written release of the school board having the care, management, or control of the school in which the teacher is employed; (3) Inefficiency in teaching or in the management of a school; (4) Affliction with active tuberculosis or other communicable disease shall be considered as cause for removal or suspension while the teacher is suffering from such disability; or (5) Discontinuance of position or lack of pupils.
Subdivision 5. Hearing of charges against teacher. The charges against a teacher shall be in writing and signed by the person making the same and then filed with the secretary or clerk of the school board having charge of the school in which the teacher is employed. Such school board before discharging or demoting a teacher shall then accord the teacher against whom such charges have been filed a full hearing and give to the teacher at least ten days' notice in writing of the time and place of such hearing; such notice may be served personally or sent by registered mail addressed to such teacher at his last known post-office address; provided, that if the charge be made by any person not in connection with the school system the charge may be disregarded by such school board. Upon such hearing being held such school board shall hear all evidence that may be adduced in support of the charges and for the teacher's defense thereto. Either party shall have the right to have a written record of the hearing at the expense of the board and to have witnesses subpoenaed and all witnesses so subpoenaed shall be examined under oath. Any member of the school board conducting such a hearing shall have authority to issue subpoenas and to administer oaths to witnesses.
Subdivision 6. Counsel; examination of witnesses. Each party appearing before the school board shall have the right to be represented by counsel, and such counsel may examine and cross-examine witnesses and present arguments.
Subdivision 7. Hearings. All hearings before the school board shall be private or may be public at the decision of the teacher against whom such charges have been filed.
Subdivision 8. Decision, when rendered. Such hearing must be concluded and a decision in writing, stating the grounds on which it is based, rendered within 25 days after giving of such notice. Where the hearing is before a school board the teacher may be discharged or demoted upon the affirmative vote of a majority of the members of the school board. If the charges, or any of such, are found to be true, the school board conducting the hearing shall discharge, demote, or suspend the teacher, as seems to be for the best interest of the school. No teacher shall be discharged for either of the causes specified in subdivision 4, except during the school year, and then only upon charges filed at least four months before the close of the school sessions of such school year.
Subdivision 9. Charges expunged from records. In all cases where the final decision is in favor of the teacher the charge or charges shall be physically expunged from the records.
Subdivision 10. Suspension pending hearing; salary. Upon the filing of charges against a teacher, the school board may suspend the teacher from regular duty. If, upon final decision, the teacher is suspended or removed, the school board may in its discretion determine the teacher's salary or compensation as of the time of filing the charges. If the final decision is favorable to the teacher, there shall be no abatement of salary or compensation.
Subdivision 11. Services terminated by discontinuance or lack of pupils: preference given. Any teacher whose services are terminated on account of discontinuance of position or lack of pupils shall receive first consideration for other positions in the district for which she is qualified. In the event it becomes necessary to discontinue one or more positions, in making such discontinuance, teachers shall be discontinued in any department in the inverse order in which they were employed.
Implications for education
In this case, the teacher had been assigned to the teaching of primary grades for a period sufficient to establish tenure rights and should have had priority over teachers from the intermediate or high school grades although the tenure rights of each are the same. Once the teacher had acquired a position as a primary teacher, the transfer of teachers from the upper grades to fill a position which would otherwise be hers was clearly arbitrary and based on an erroneous theory of law.
In a later case, Walker v. School District of the City of Scranton, teachers were examined by the School Board to determine their strongest qualifications to teach as indicated by those courses in which they specialized in college. Under the Scranton plan, the school board classified teaching assignments and properly confined the seniority rights of teachers to specific teaching assignments. The dismissal of teachers was controlled by the terms of their appointment and was not based simply on what they were licensed to do. In Ging and Walker, the court was consistent in reaffirming its ruling and confining seniority rights of teachers to specific teaching assignments.
Davidson v. Board of Education of the City School
District of East Cleveland, 38 Ohio L Abs 6,
26 Ohio Ops 142, Ohio (1943)
Statutes appropriate to case
Source – Laws of Ohio, Volume 119-1941.
Sec. 7690-6. Termination of contract by board; grounds; notice; hearing; decision; appeal, pages 454, 455, 456.
The contract of a teacher may not be terminated except for gross inefficiency or immorality; for willful and persistent violations of reasonable regulations of the board of education; or for other good and just cause. Before terminating any contract, the employing board of education shall furnish the teacher a written notice signed by its clerk of its intention to consider the termination of his contract with full specification of the ground or grounds for such consideration. Unless the teacher so notified shall, within ten days subsequent to the receipt of such notice, demand in writing an opportunity to appear before the board and offer reasons against such termination, the board may proceed with formal action to terminate the contract. If, however, said teacher shall, within ten days after receipt of notice from the clerk of the board, demand in writing a hearing before said board, the board shall set a time for the hearing within thirty days from the date of said written demand and the clerk of the board shall give the teacher at least fifteen days' notice in writing of the time and place of such hearing; provided, however, that no hearing shall be held during the summer vacation without the teacher's consent. Such hearing shall be private unless the teacher requests a public hearing. The hearing shall be conducted by a majority of the members of the board and be confined to the aforesaid ground or grounds for such termination. The board of education shall provide for a complete stenographic record of the proceedings, a copy of such record to be furnished to the teacher. The board of education may suspend a teacher pending final action to terminate his contract if, in its judgment, the character of the charge warrants such action.
Both parties shall have the right to be present at such hearing, to be represented by counsel, to require witnesses to be under oath, to cross-examine witnesses, to take a record of the proceedings, and to require the presence of witnesses in their behalf upon subpoena to be issued by the clerk of the board. In case of the failure of any person to comply with a subpoena, a common pleas judge of the county in which the person resides, upon application of any interested party, shall compel attendance of the person by attachment proceedings as for contempt. Any member of the board of education shall have power to administer oaths to witnesses. After hearing, the board by majority vote may enter upon its minutes an order of termination. If the decision of the board, after hearing, is against termination of the contract, the charges and the record of the hearing shall be physically expunged from the minutes and, if the teacher has been suspended, he shall be paid his full salary for the period of such suspension.
Any teacher affected by an order of termination of contract shall have the right of appeal to this court of common pleas of the county in which the school is located within thirty days after receipt of notice of the entry of such order. Such appeal shall be an original action in said common pleas court and shall be commenced by the filing of a petition against such board of education, in which petition the facts shall be alleged upon which the teacher relies for a reversal or modification of such order of termination of contract. Upon service or waiver of summons in said appeal, such board of education shall forthwith transmit to the clerk of said common pleas court for filing a transcript of the original papers theretofore filed with said board and a certified transcript of all evidence adduced at the hearing or hearings before such board, whereupon the cause shall be at issue without further pleading and shall be advanced and heard without delay. The common pleas court shall examine the transcript and record of the hearing before the board of education and shall hold such additional hearings as it may deem advisable, at which it may consider other evidence in addition to such transcript and record.
Upon final hearing, the common pleas court shall grant or deny the relief prayed for in the petition as may be proper under the provisions of this act and in accordance with the evidence adduced in the hearing. Such an action shall be deemed to be a special proceeding within the purview of section 12223-2 of the General Code and either the teacher or the board of education may appeal therefrom.
In any court action the board of education may utilize the services of the prosecuting attorney or city solicitor as authorized by section 4761 of the General Code, or may employ other legal counsel if it deems it necessary.
Sec. 7690-7. Reduction in number of teachers; procedure, page 456. When by reason of decreased enrollment of pupils, or by reason of suspension of schools or territorial changes affecting the district, a board of education decides that it will be necessary to reduce the number of teachers, it shall have full authority to make reasonable reduction, but, in making such reduction, the board shall proceed to suspend contracts in accordance with the recommendation of the superintendent of schools who shall, within each teaching field affected, give preference to teachers on continuing contracts and to teachers who have greater seniority. Teachers whose continuing contracts are suspended shall have the right of restoration to continuing service status in the order of seniority of service in the district if and when teaching positions become vacant or are created for which any of such teachers are or become qualified.
Overview
The position formerly held by the teacher, that of assistant superintendent, had been abolished and there was no need for the employment of the teacher in an administrative capacity. The teacher's experience in the school district had been purely administrative, for which she was especially trained and qualified, and the Board deemed it not in the best interests of the schools now to employ her as a teacher. There was no teaching position open to which the Board deemed her adapted by training and experience. Diminishing enrollment and lack of funds made the reduction in the teaching force necessary and the Board decided it unwise to replace a teacher of known teaching experience by one who served in purely an administrative capacity.
Issue
Can the Board decide it is unwise to replace a teacher of known teaching experience by one who served in purely an administrative capacity when a reduction in the teaching force is necessary due to diminishing enrollment and lack of funds?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
Section 7690-7 provided that preference shall be given to teachers on the basis of seniority. It was, therefore, required by the school district to employ the teacher in the elementary schools. The opinion of the Board that the teacher's long experience in an administrative capacity disqualified her from teaching in the schools was founded upon an assumption unsupported by any evidence of fact. At the hearing on September 14, 1942, the teacher testified that on many occasions while serving as an administrator she was required as part of her duties to "demonstrate teaching" to others and that she believed she was able to regularly perform such work. The superintendent of schools, who testified on behalf of the Board, refused to state that he did not believe the teacher qualified to teach in the elementary schools. The teacher had a lifetime certificate authorizing her to engage in teaching at the elementary level. In view of the facts, the teacher was entitled to an opportunity to demonstrate whether she could teach, and to establish the truth or falsity of the assumption that her long experience in an executive capacity had disqualified her from efficiently performing the duties of a subordinate.
Significant points
1. The opinion of the Board that the teacher's long experience in an administrative capacity disqualified her from teaching in the schools was founded upon an assumption unsupported by any evidence of fact.
2. In view of the facts, the teacher was entitled to an opportunity to demonstrate whether she could teach, and to establish the truth or falsity of the assumption that her long experience in an executive capacity had disqualified her from efficiently performing the duties of a subordinate employee.
Revised statute
Source – Pages Ohio Revised Code Annotated, Titles 33, Education, Libraries.
3319.16. Termination of contract by board of education, pages 270-271. The contract of a teacher may not be terminated except for gross inefficiency or immorality; for willful and persistent violations of reasonable regulations of the board of education; or for other good and just cause. Before terminating any contract, the employing board shall furnish the teacher a written notice signed by its clerk of its intention to consider the termination of his contract with full specification of the grounds for such consideration. Such board shall not proceed with formal action to terminate the contract until after the tenth day after receipt of such notice by the teacher. Within ten days after receipt of such notice from the clerk of the board, the teacher may file with the clerk a written demand for a hearing before the board or before a referee, and the board shall set a time for the hearing which shall be within thirty days from the date of receipt of the written demand, and the clerk shall give the teacher at least twenty days' notice in writing of the time and place of such hearing. If a referee is demanded by either the teacher or board, the clerk shall also give twenty days' notice to the superintendent of public instruction. No hearing shall be held during the summer vacation without the teacher's consent. Such hearing shall be private unless the teacher requests a public hearing. The hearing shall be conducted by a referee appointed pursuant to section 3319.161 (3319.16.1) of the Revised Code, if demanded: otherwise, it shall be conducted by a majority of the members of the board and shall be confined to the grounds given for such termination. The board shall provide for a complete stenographic record of the proceedings, a copy of such record to be furnished to the teacher. The board may suspend a teacher pending final action to terminate his contract if, in its judgment, the character of the charges warrants such action.
Both parties may be present at such hearing, be represented by counsel, require witnesses to be under oath, cross examine witnesses, take a record of the proceedings, and require the presence of witnesses in their behalf upon subpoena to be issued by the clerk of the board. In case of the failure of any person to comply with a subpoena, a common pleas judge of the county in which the person resides, upon application of any interested party, shall compel attendance of the person by attachment proceedings as for contempt. Any member of the board or the referee may administer oaths to witnesses. After a hearing by a referee, the referee shall file his report within ten days after the termination of the hearing. After consideration of the referee's report, the board by a majority vote may accept or reject the referee's recommendation on the termination of the teacher's contract. After a hearing by the board, the board by majority vote may enter its determination upon its minutes. Any order of termination of a contract shall state the grounds for termination. If the decision, after hearing, is against termination of the contract, the charges and the record of the hearing shall be physically expunged from the minutes, and if the teacher has suffered any loss of salary by reason of being suspended, they shall be paid full salary for the period of such suspension.
Any teacher affected by an order of termination of contract may appeal to the court of common pleas of the county in which the school is located within thirty days after receipt of notice of the entry of such order. Such appeal shall be an original action in said court and shall be commenced by the filing of a petition against such board, in which petition the facts shall be alleged upon which the teacher relies for a reversal or modification of such order of termination of contract. Upon service or waiver of summons in said appeal, such board shall immediately transmit to the clerk of said court for filing a transcript of the original papers filed with the board, a certified copy of the minutes of the board into which the termination finding was entered, and a certified transcript of all evidence adduced at the hearing or hearings before such board or a certified transcript of all evidence adduced at the hearing or hearings before the referee, whereupon the cause shall be at issue without further pleading and shall be advanced and heard without delay. The court shall examine the transcript and record of the hearing and shall hold such additional hearings as it deems advisable, at which it may consider other evidence in addition to such transcript and record.
Upon final hearing, the court shall grant or deny the relief prayed for in the petition as may be proper in accordance with the evidence adduced in the hearing. Such an action is a special proceeding within the purview of section 2505.02 of the Revised Code and either the teacher or the board may appeal therefrom. In any court action the board may utilize the services of the prosecuting attorney or city solicitor as authorized by section 3313.35 of the Revised Code, or may employ other legal counsel.
3319.17 Reduction in number of teachers; restoration, page 274. When by reason of decreased enrollment of pupils, return to duty of regular teachers after leaves of absence, or by reason of suspension of schools or territorial changes affecting the district, a board of education decides that it will be necessary to reduce the number of teachers, it may make a reasonable reduction. In making such reduction, the board shall proceed to suspend contracts in accordance with the recommendation of the superintendent of schools who shall, within each teaching field affected, give preference to teachers on continuing contracts and to teachers who have greater seniority. Teachers whose continuing contracts are suspended shall have the right of restoration to continuing service status in the order of seniority of service in the district if and when teaching positions become vacant or are created for which any of such teachers are or become qualified.
Implications for education
The teacher’s long experience in purely an administrative capacity did not disqualify her from teaching in the schools. While serving as an administrator she was required as part of her duties to “demonstrate teaching” to others and believed she was able to regularly perform such work. Although no evidence is presented in the case, the assistant superintendent was probably linked to the teacher’s salary index with additional compensation for administrative responsibilities. If this is true, she would retain seniority rights. Referring back to Frank v. Meigs County Board of Education, the assistant county superintendent was no longer considered part of the teaching force and subsequently did not retain seniority rights as a teacher.
Flannery v. Jenkins Township School Directors
39 Luzerne Leg. R365,60 Pa D & C 433
Pennsylvania (1947)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – Laws of Pennsylvania, 1939, page 486.
Section 1205(b). Whenever it shall become necessary to decrease the number of professional employes by reason of substantial decrease of pupil population within the school district, the board of school directors (or board of public education) may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for the causes hereinafter enumerated (but only in the inverse order of the appointment of such employes):
(1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district;
(2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors (or board of public education), approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction;
(3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts, or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Whenever a board of school directors (or board of public education) decreases the size of the staff of professional employes under the provisions of this act, the suspensions to be made shall be determined by the county superintendent of schools or the district superintendent, as the case may be, on the basis of efficiency rank determined by ratings made in accordance with standards and regulations, determined by rating cards prepared by the Department of Public Instruction. It shall hereafter be the duty of boards of school directors to cause to be established a permanent record system, containing ratings for each teacher employed within the district, and copies of all ratings for the year shall be transmitted to the teacher upon his or her request, or, if any rating during the year is unsatisfactory, a copy of same shall be transmitted to the teacher concerned. No teacher shall be dismissed under this act unless such rating records have been kept on file by the board of school directors.
In cases in which suspensions are to be made, professional employes shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights where no differences in rating are found. Seniority rights shall also prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating. In cases where there are substantial differences in rating of those under consideration for suspension, seniority shall be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in the rating cards hereinbefore referred to: Provided, That in cases in which suspensions are to be make during the school term immediately following the effective date of this act, professional employees shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights.
No employe suspended as aforesaid shall be prevented from engaging in other occupation during the period of such suspension. Such professional employes shall be reinstated in the inverse order of their suspension. No new appointment shall be made while there are suspended professional employes available, who are properly certified to fill such vacancies.
Overview
The teacher was first employed as a teacher in the school district in 1929 and subsequently until August 1943, at which time she and seven others were suspended from further service due to declining enrollment in the high school. The tenured teacher contended that the reinstatement of a teacher, her junior in tenure, instead of her, to teach guidance during the term beginning September 1944, was a violation of her seniority rights by the board. The teacher had become certified to teach guidance between the time of her dismissal and the reinstatement of the other teacher.
Issue
Is a teacher who was dismissed because of decreased student enrollment entitled to reinstatement under provisions of seniority of service rather than seniority of qualifications to teach a particular subject?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
The board argued that the fundamental policy expressed in the Constitution and underlying school laws was to obtain a better education for the children of the Commonwealth. Therefore, the action of the school board in reinstating the junior teacher, an experienced teacher, to teach guidance was justified because the teacher had prior certification in the subject of guidance. He had experience, training and knowledge acquired from teaching this subject for a full year. In the board’s opinion, he was the more capably and competently qualified to provide the best education in the teaching of guidance to the children of the district.
This argument, in the Court’s judgment, was not sound and it gave the board no discretion to ignore the tenure teacher’s seniority rights which were protected by the School Code and it made it the imperative duty of the board to reinstate the teacher first from the seven suspended high school teachers to teach any subject she was certificated to teach, among them guidance, since she had recently become certified to teach in this particular area. The board was not vested with any discretion to discriminate in favor of the junior teacher against the senior teacher out of any alleged regard for the fundamental policy expressed in the Constitution and underlying school laws. The Court pointed out if the discretion of school boards, exercised on the basis of such plausible arguments, would enable boards to override the seniority rights (designed by the Tenure Act to be so carefully safeguarded) would become a dead letter and they would be frittered away entirely by the subtle and specious actions of boards under the disguise of promoting the “cardinal purpose” of furnishing the best education for the children.
Significant points
1. The board has no discretion to ignore the tenure seniority rights of a teacher which are protected by the School Code, and it made it the imperative duty of the board to reinstate the teacher first from the seven suspended teachers to teach any subject they were certified to teach.
2. The board was not vested with any discretion to discriminate in favor of the junior teacher against the senior teacher out of any alleged regard for the fundamental policy expressed in the Constitution and underlying school laws of obtaining a better education for the children of the Commonwealth.
Revised statute
Source – Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, page 528.
11-1124. Causes for suspension. Any board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for any of the causes hereinafter enumerated: (1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district; (2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction; (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Implications for education
The court pointed out that the board could not override the tenure and seniority rights of the teacher to discriminate in favor of the junior teacher in tenure. It was the duty of the board to reinstate the dismissed teacher to teach any subject she was certificated to teach. The teacher continued her professional preparation and subsequently became certified to serve in the area of guidance. The court expressed that the teacher had definite seniority rights protected by tenure and it was the imperative duty of the board to reinstate the dismissed teacher to serve in any capacity for which she was certified, among them guidance, since she had recently become certified to serve in this area. In this case, the teacher had seniority rights protected by tenure and then became certified in a different area and was permitted to bump another with less seniority.
Butler v. Wilkes-Barre Twp. School District,
41 Luzerne Leg. Reg R13
Pennsylvania (1948)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – Laws of Pennsylvania 1939, page 486.
Section 1205(b). Whenever it shall become necessary to decrease the number of professional employes by reason of substantial decrease of pupil population within the school district, the board of school directors (or board of public education) may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for the causes hereinafter enumerated (but only in the inverse order of the appointment of such employees):
(1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district;
(2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors (or board of public education), approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction;
(3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts, or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Whenever a board of school directors (or board of public education) decreases the size of the staff of professional employes under the provisions of this act, the suspensions to be made shall be determined by the county superintendent of schools or the district superintendent, as the case may be, on the basis of efficiency rank determined by ratings made in accordance with standards and regulations, determined by rating cards prepared by the Department of Public Instruction. It shall hereafter be the duty of boards of school directors to cause to be established a permanent record system, containing ratings for each teacher employed within the district, and copies of all ratings for the year shall be transmitted to the teacher upon his or her request, or, if any rating during the year is unsatisfactory, a copy of same shall be transmitted to the teacher concerned. No teacher shall be dismissed under this act unless such rating records have been kept on file by the board of school directors.
In cases in which suspensions are to be made, professional employes shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights where no differences in rating are found. Seniority rights shall also prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating. In cases where there are substantial differences in rating of those under consideration for suspension, seniority shall be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in the rating cards hereinbefore referred to: Provided, That in cases in which suspensions are to be make during the school term immediately following the effective date of this act, professional employees shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights.
No employee suspended as aforesaid shall be prevented from engaging in other occupation during the period of such suspension. Such professional employees shall be reinstated in the inverse order of their suspension. No new appointment shall be made while there are suspended professional employee available, who are properly certified to fill such vacancies.
Overview
On June 22, 1948, at the end of the school year, the teacher was notified by the officials of the school district that she would be suspended as a teacher due to a decrease in the student enrollment. The teacher taught art and home economics, and acted as a teacher under the terms of the contract until the end of the school term, 1948. The testimony showed that since September 1948, the subjects art and home economics, previously taught by the teacher, were taught by others on the payroll of the district who were certified as being qualified to teach the subjects. The teacher argued this was illegal and that she be reinstated to her former teaching position. The teacher was unemployed during the following school year.
Issue
Can the school board suspend the necessary number of teachers where there is a substantial decrease in pupil enrollment?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
The testimony established that there had been a decrease in the total enrollment in the district from 1,360 pupils in the school year beginning in 1940 to 849 at the beginning of the school year 1948. The testimony also showed that for the school year 1944-1945, 296 pupils were enrolled in the art department and 152 in the department of home economics; that for the term 1945-1946 there were 171 students in the home economics department; that for the school year 1946-1947, 233 pupils were enrolled in the art department and 106 in the home economics department, and that at the time of the trial the enrollment was 223 students in the art department and 101 in the home economics department.
It thus appeared to the Court that there had been a substantial decrease in the pupils enrolled in the school district, and that this decrease was considerably reflected in the home economics department and the art department at the time of the teacher’s dismissal at the end of the school year, 1947-1948.
The Court emphasized the operation of the schools of the district was a matter within the discretion of the members of the school board. The School Code, Section 1205(b), specifically authorized a board of school directors to suspend the necessary number of professional employes when there has been a substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district. Where such a decrease appears, the discretion of the board is not subject to review, unless an abuse was shown.
The teacher had charged that as a matter of law the action of the school board was illegal. No abuse of discretion on the part of the members of the school board was alleged or proven. The board had acted in good faith for the total benefit of the school district.
Significant points
1. The testimony established that there had been a definite decrease in the total enrollment in the district from the school year beginning in 1940 to the beginning of the school year of 1948. it thus appeared to the Court that there had been a substantial decrease in pupils enrolled in the school district, and that this decrease was considerably reflected in the home economics department and the art department at the time of the teacher’s dismissal at the end of the school year, 1947-1948.
2. The Court emphasized the operation of the schools of the district was a matter within the discretion of the members of the school board. The School Code, Section 1205(b), specifically authorized a board of school directors to suspend the necessary number of professional employes when there has been a substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district. Where such a decrease appears, the discretion of the board is not subject to review, unless an abuse was shown.
3. The board had acted in good faith for the total benefit of the school district.
Revised statute
Source – Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, page 528.
11-1124. Causes for suspension. Any board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for any of the causes hereinafter enumerated: (1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district; (2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction; (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger or districts or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Implications for education
It appeared to the court that there had been a substantial decrease in pupils enrolled in the school district, and that this decrease was considerably reflected in the home economics department and the art department at the time of the teacher’s dismissal at the end of the school year, 1947-1948. Although the dismissed teacher was protected by tenure, there had been a definite decrease in students reflected in the areas of her teaching responsibilities. The board assigned the subjects previously taught by the teacher to others in the district who were certified as being qualified to teach the subjects. In eliminating one teaching position, the court expressed the fact that the board had acted in good faith for the total benefit of the school district. The board had complied with 1205(b) and did not violate any seniority or tenure rights of the teacher.
McWithy v. Heart River School District No. 22,
32 N.W.2d 886 North Dakota (1948)
Statute appropriate to case
Source – North Dakota Revised Code of 1943, Volume 2, page 957.
15-2509. School Terms: Minimum; Discontinuance of Term; Arbitration. The terms in a common school district shall be arranged to accommodate pupils of all ages and to furnish school privileges equally and equitably to all pupils in the district. Each common school shall be kept in session for not less than seven months in each school year, except that any school may be discontinued when the average attendance of pupils therein shall be less than six for ten consecutive days, if proper and convenient school facilities for the pupils can be provided in some other school in the territory of the closed school until such time as the school may be reopened by the board. In determining what constitutes proper and convenient school facilities, the board shall consider the distance of each child from the nearest other school and all surrounding circumstances. The board may furnish transportation to the nearest school, or may pay an extra allowance for the transportation, or may furnish the equivalent thereof in tuition or lodging at some other public school. In case of a dispute between a patron and the board as to whether the board has furnished or arranged to furnish adequate facilities, the matter may be submitted by the patron to a board of arbitration consisting of the county superintendent of schools, one arbitrator named by the patron, and one arbitrator named by the board, and the determination of the arbitrators, after hearing, shall be binding. The board shall reopen any school which has been closed for lack of attendance under this section for the next ensuing term upon the written demand of the parents or guardians of six or more children of compulsory school age residing within two and one-half miles of the school, and the board may reopen such school at any time upon its own motion.
Overview
The contract provided the teacher should teach in a school within the school district for a term of eight months beginning September 11, 1944, at a salary of $125 per month. The contract further provided that the school might be discontinued at any time in accordance with Section 15-2509, which provides, in part, that “school may be discontinued when the average attendance of pupils therein shall be less than six for ten consecutive days…”
During the three months eight children were in attendance, only seven of whom were of compulsory school age. They belonged to two families and were all the children of school age in the district. One of these families was that of the president of the school board. The record showed the teacher had some difficulties with discipline in her school. In early November she got into a dispute with the son of the president of the school board over a matter of history in which she was clearly right. The son defied her. The father took the son’s part. He visited the school and in a rather rough manner told the teacher he was going to “shut the school and put her out.” He claimed his children were not “learning anything” in school. About November 11th the board president took his three children out of school and sent them to school at Richardton, North Dakota. He also visited the father of the other family attending school, and told him to keep his children out “for ten days – enough days so the contract of the teacher would be void.” Both families kept their children out of school for ten consecutive days. Then on November 29th the school board met and passed a resolution closing the school on grounds that the attendance was less than six for ten consecutive days. The teacher was not notified of the board’s action. Shortly after the ten days had expired the five children of the other family returned to school. The teacher continued to teach them the rest of the contract year, and she was not disturbed in her teaching responsibilities, although the president of the school board knew she was teaching. Her pupils took and passed the required examinations provided by the county superintendent. For teaching the five remaining months of the year, the teacher asked $560.75 with interest at four percent from the board for compensation. The board contested the school was closed December 1, 1944, according to the provisions of the contract and the law.
Issue
If the Board of Education fails to notify a teacher of the closing of a school because the average attendance was less than six pupils for ten consecutive days, is the teacher entitled to compensation for her professional services when she continues to teach five students in the school?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
A formal notice to the teacher of the resolution for the discontinuance of the school was a prerequisite to the termination of the teacher’s contract as provided for under Section 15-2509. The Court expressed that the party having the right to terminate a contract must act in good faith and give reasonable notice to the other party and that “all acts done under the contract by the other party prior to the time of receiving notice of its termination are binding on both parties.” Since the teacher received no such notice she was justified in continuing to teach the five children when they returned and in believing that the threatened closing of the school had been abandoned. The Court ruled the teacher was entitled to her salary for the whole term as provided by the contract.
Significant points
1. A formal notice to the teacher of the resolution of the discontinuance of the school was a prerequisite to the termination of the teacher’s contract.
2. The party having the right to terminate a contract must act in good faith and give reasonable notice to the other party prior to the time of receiving notice of its termination are binding on both parties.
3. Since the teacher received no such notice she was justified in believing that the threatened closing of the school had been abandoned.
Revised statute
Source – North Dakota Century Code, Replacement Volume 3 1975, Pocket Supplement.
15-47-38. Legislative intent in employment of teachers – Notification of discharge or failure to renew – Hearing
1. The legislative assembly, in recognition of the value of good employer-employee relationships between school boards of this state and the teachers employed in the school systems, the need to recruit and retain qualified teachers in this state, and further in recognition of the many intangibles in evaluating the performance of individual members of the teaching profession, urges that each school board of this state ensure through formally adopted policies, that channels of communication exist between the board, supervisory personnel, and teachers employed within its school system. In the very sensitive area of discharge of teachers for cause prior to the expiration of the term of the teachers’ contracts, or in decisions not to renew the contracts of teachers, school boards shall give serious consideration to the damage that can result to the professional stature and reputation of such teachers, which stature and reputation were acquired only after the expenditure of substantial time and money in obtaining the necessary qualifications for such profession and in years of practicing the profession of teaching; and that in all decisions of school boards relating to discharge or refusal to renew contracts, all actions of the board be taken with consideration and dignity, giving the maximum consideration to basic fairness and decency.
2. The school board of any school district contemplating discharging a teacher for cause prior to the expiration of the term of the teacher’s contract shall notify such teacher in writing of such fact at least ten days prior to the date of contemplated discharge. Such teacher shall be informed in writing of the time and place for a special meeting of the school board to be held for such purpose prior to the final decision on the matter. Such teacher shall also be informed in writing of his right to demand a specification of the reasons for such discharge, which must on demand of the teacher be furnished not less than five days prior to said meeting to be held on the question of contemplated discharge. Such reasons shall be sufficient to justify the contemplated action of the board and shall not be frivolous or arbitrary. At the meeting with the board, if the teacher has informed the board in writing at least two days prior thereto that he will contest the charges brought against him, the board must sustain the charges with evidence produced at such hearing with witnesses who shall be subject to cross-examination by the teacher or his representative. The teacher may then produce such witnesses as may be necessary to refute the charges, which witnesses shall be subject to cross-examination. The proceedings may, at the request of either party, be transcribed by a court reporter at the expense of the person requesting such transcript and the witnesses may on demand of either party be placed under oath by a person authorized by law to administer oaths. Any person testifying falsely under oath shall be guilty of perjury and punished according to law. The meeting shall be an executive session of the board unless both the school board and the teacher requesting such meeting shall agree that it shall be open to other persons or the public. The teacher may be represented at the meeting by two representatives of his own choosing. In addition to board members, the school district clerk and the superintendent, the school board may be represented by two other representatives of its own choosing at such executive session. If the teacher so requests they shall be granted a continuance of not to exceed seven days by the board unless for good cause otherwise shown. No cause of action for libel or slander shall lie for any statement expressed either orally or in writing at any executive session of the school board held for the purposes provided for in this section.
3. A school board may dismiss a teacher, effective immediately, for any of the following causes: 1. Immoral conduct, insubordination, or conviction of a felony; b. Conduct unbecoming a teacher which requires the immediate removal of a teacher from his classroom duties; c. Failure without justifiable cause to perform contracted duties; d. Gross inefficiency which the teacher has failed to correct after reasonable written notice; or e. Continuing physical or mental disability which renders one unfit or unable to perform said duties as a teacher.
4. The school board by unanimous vote may suspend the teacher from regular duty if such action is deemed desirable during the process of determining if cause for dismissal exists. If, upon final decision, the teacher is dismissed, the board may in its discretion determine the teacher’s salary of compensation as of the date of suspension. If the final decision is favorable to the teacher, there shall be no abatement of salary or compensation.
5. The school board of any school district contemplating not renewing a teacher’s contract, as provided in section 15-47-27, shall notify such teacher in writing of such contemplated nonrenewal no later than April first. Such teacher shall be informed in writing of the time, which shall not be later than April seventh, and place of a special school board meeting for the purpose of discussing and acting upon such contemplated nonrenewal. Such teacher shall also be informed in writing of the reasons for such nonrenewal. Such reasons shall be sufficient to justify the contemplated action of the board and shall not be frivolous or arbitrary but shall be related to the ability, competence, or qualifications of the teacher as a teacher, or the necessities of the district such as lack of funds calling for a reduction in the teaching staff. At the meeting with the board the teacher may then produce such evidence as may be necessary to evaluate the reasons for nonrenewal, and either party may produce witnesses to confirm or refute the reasons. The school board shall give an explanation and shall discuss and confirm at such meeting its reasons for the contemplated nonrenewal of the contract. The meeting shall be an executive session of the board unless both the school board and the teacher shall agree that it shall be open to other persons or the public. The teacher may be represented at such meeting by any two representatives of his own choosing. In addition to board members, the school district clerk, and the superintendent, the school board may be represented by two other representatives of its own choosing at such executive session. Upon such hearing, if the teacher so requests, he shall be granted a continuance of not to exceed seven days. No cause of action for libel or slander shall lie for any statement expressed either orally or in writing at any executive session of the school board held for the purposes provided for in this section. The determination not to renew a contract if made in good faith shall be final and binding on all parties. Final notice of the determination not to renew a contract shall be given in writing by April fifteenth as provided in section 15047-27.
Implications for education
A formal notice to the teacher of the resolution of the discontinuance of the school was a prerequisite to the termination of the teacher’s contract. Since the teacher received no such notice she was justified in believing that the threatened closing of the school had been abandoned. It is significant to note that proper notification by terms of law is very important.
Caperelli v. School District of the Borough of Winston,
Volume 63 Lack Jur 269
Pennsylvania (1952)
Statutes appropriate to case
Source – Purdon’s Penna Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education.
11-1124. Causes for suspension, page 528. Any board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for any of the causes hereinafter enumerated: (1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district; (2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction; (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts, or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Source – Laws of Pennsylvania, Volume II 1951-52.
Section 1166. Persons Entitled, pages 1791-1792. (a) Any person employed in the public school system of this Commonwealth who has completed ten (10) years of satisfactory service as a (teacher, or, in first class school districts, as a member of the instructional staff or department of instruction, as now defined by the local board of education) professional employe or member of the supervisory, instructional or administrative staff, or, in first class school districts, as a member of the instructional staff, as defined by the local board of education, shall be entitled to a leave of absence for restoration of health, study or travel, or, at the discretion of the board of school directors, for other purposes. At least five consecutive years of such service shall have been in the school district from which leave of absence is sought, unless the board of school directors shall in its discretion allow a shorter time. Such leave of absence shall be for a half or full school year, or for two half school years during a period to two years, at the option of such person. Thereafter, one leave of absence shall be allowed after each seven years of service.
A sabbatical leave granted to a regular employee shall also operate as a leave of absence without pay from all other school activities.
Overview
There was a decrease in pupil enrollment from 535 to 289 and it was necessary to suspend the teacher, among others. The board expressed that he had no seniority claim to employment over another teacher who was restored to employment in 1950 after a prolonged maternity leave, either in total length of service or in appropriate job classification. The dismissed teacher was guilty of failing to file his complaint more than a year after the notice of suspension, which was recommended by the superintendent of schools. The superintendent, after consideration of the financial situation of the school district, concluded that there was no need for the teacher certified and qualified to teach the subjects for which the teacher was certified.
The teacher seeking legal action against the board asserted that the hiring of the other teacher restored to employment after a prolonged maternity leave was unnecessary because other teachers remaining employed were qualified to teach the subject to which she was assigned, and the dismissed teacher could have taught a subject to replace a teacher so reassigned.
Issue
When there is a decrease in pupil enrollment and financial stress, and it is necessary to suspend a teacher, is it the responsibility of the administration to rearrange teaching assignments to provide protection to a teacher with seniority?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
The teacher who was restored to employment in 1950 after a prolonged maternity leave taught a course in mathematics (solid geometry and trigonometry) which had been omitted from the high school curriculum during most of her absence on leave and which the dismissed teacher conceded he was not qualified to teach. There were, however, as of the date of the teacher’s suspension four other teachers senior to him who were certified to teach mathematics but were actually teaching in other assignments. They were actually teaching in other assignments subjects in some of which the teacher was likewise certified to teach. The court pointed out that even though it may have been laborious, if the superintendent or the principal of the high school had rearranged teaching assignments to provide for a course in solid geometry and trigonometry, a senior teacher was certified to teach mathematics, that a place could have been found for the dismissed teacher to teach the subject for which he was certified.
It was obvious to the court that the teacher restored to employment after the prolonged maternity leave, through long experience in teaching the course to which she was assigned upon reinstatement, could be expected to put out initially at least a better performance than one who, although certified to teach mathematics, lacked any recent experience in such instruction. However, the school district had no system of qualification on separate hiring of teachers by departments or groups of studies, and the court could see no reason for depriving the dismissed teacher of employment.
Significant points
1. There were, as of the date of the teacher’s suspension, four other teachers senior to him who were certified to teach mathematics but were actually teaching in other assignments. They were actually teaching in other assignments subjects in some of which the teacher was likewise certified to teach. The court pointed out that even though it may have been laborious, if the superintendent or the principal had rearranged teaching assignments to provide for a course that a senior teacher was certified to teach, a place could have been found for the dismissed teacher to teach the subject for which he was certified.
Revised statute
Source – Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, page 528.
11-1124. Causes for suspension. Any board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for any of the causes hereinafter enumerated: (1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district; (2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction; (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Source – Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, Pocket Part, pages 137-138.
11-1166. Persons entitled. Any person employed in the public school system of this Commonwealth who has completed ten (10) years of satisfactory service as a professional employe or member of the supervisory, instructional or administrative staff, or as a commissioned officer, of any board of school directors, county board of school directors, or any other part of the public school system of the Commonwealth, shall be entitled to a leave of absence for restoration of health, study or travel, or, at the discretion of the board of school directors, for other purposes. At least five consecutive years of such service shall have been in the school district from which leave of absence is sought, unless the board of school directors shall in its discretion allow a shorter time: Provided, however, That in the case of professional employes of area vocational-technical schools or technical institutes prior service in the participating school district shall be credited toward such service requirement. Such leave of absence shall be for a half or full school term or for two half school terms during a period of two years, at the option of such person: Provided, however, if a sabbatical leave is requested because of the illness of an employe, a leave shall be granted for a period equivalent to a half or full school term or equivalent to two half school terms during a period of two years, at the option of such person: Provided, further, That if a sabbatical leave for one half school term or its equivalent has been granted and the employe is unable to return to school service because of illness or physical disability, the employe, upon written request prior to the expiration of the original leave, shall be entitled to a further sabbatical leave for one half school term or its equivalent: Provided, further, That if a sabbatical leave for a full school term or its equivalent has been granted and the employe is unable to return to school service because of illness or physical disability, the board of school directors may extend such sabbatical leave for such periods as it may determine but not to exceed one full school term or its equivalent. Thereafter, one leave of absence shall be allowed after each seven years of service. A sabbatical leave granted to a regular employe shall also operate as a leave of absence without pay from all other school activities.
Implications for education
The court pointed out that even though it may have been laborious, if the superintendent or the principal had rearranged teaching assignments to provide for a course that a senior teacher was certified to teach, a place could have been found for the dismissed teacher to teach the subject for which he was certified.
In referring back to Flannery v. Jenkins Township School Directors, the court reaffirmed its position that it was the imperative duty of the board to reinstate the dismissed teacher to serve in any capacity for which she was certified, among them guidance since she had recently become certified to serve in that area.
Woods v. Board of Education of Walker County,
67 So.2d 841 Alabama (1953)
Statutes appropriate to case
Source – Code Alabama 1940, Titles 52-62.
356. Grounds for cancellation of employment contract, page 126. Cancellation of an employment contract with a teacher on continuing service status may be made for incompetency, insubordination, neglect of duty, immorality, justifiable decrease in the number of teaching positions, or other good and just cause; but cancellation may not be made for political or personal reasons.
358. Finality of action of employing board; review, page 128. The action of the employing board of education, if made in compliance with the provisions of this chapter, and unless arbitrarily unjust, shall be final and conclusive. Whether such action complies with the provisions of this chapter, and whether such action is arbitrarily unjust, may be reviewed by bill in equity for the specific performance of such contract, filed in the county where said school system is located. No action at law shall lie for the recovery of damages for the breach of any employment contract of a teacher in the public schools.
Overview
On April 19, 1951, teachers were notified of their reappointment as teachers for the year 1951-1952 and they accepted the appointment. However, on July 9, 1951, it became necessary to reduce the number of teachers in the county in compliance with the financial appropriations which would be made by the State Department of Education . The teachers were given notice of this status by the county board through the district superintendent and were advised that their professional services would not be needed for the school year 1951-1952, but if the attendance should be increased where the employment of additional teachers should become necessary, their reemployment would be considered.
When the 1951 school year started, it was determined that the annual daily attendance of students had decreased to the extent that it was necessary to suspend a number of teachers in addition to those already suspended to bring the number employed within the number designated by the State Department of Education and to stay within the limitation of financial appropriations allowed for teachers. The suspension by the county board imposed upon the local school district was with the hope that the school district’s attendance might increase to where these suspended teachers might be reemployed, but after two months of the 1951 school year had elapsed and no increase in attendance had been shown, the board considered it necessary to terminate the contracts of the teachers, as they had been previously warned.
Issue
Where there is a decrease in the number of teaching positions due to the loss in school attendance, is a board justified in nonrenewing teachers and retaining teachers with less service?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
The School Code provided that one of the grounds for the termination of an employment contract with a teacher on continuing service status is by reason of a “justifiable decrease in the number of teaching positions.” Where a board, such as the board of education of a county, is created for the purpose of carrying a law into execution, all legal intendments are indulged in favor of the orders of such board until proven otherwise. The board rested its ruling in terminating the contracts on the decrease of teaching positions and loss of school attendance and the evidence in support of the ruling sustained it. The fact that teachers were retained of less seniority would not of itself show any arbitrary action against the board. Nor would the fact that the county board had set up no fixed ratio between the teacher load and the minimum student attendance make the action taken arbitrary. Of necessity, the Court expressed that much must be left to the discretion of the county board and its superintendent. Together, the board and the superintendent determined that it was necessary to undertake the reduction in teacher personnel on the basis of the reduction in student attendance, and the Court felt it was proper to do so.
Significant points
1. Where a board, such as the board of education of a county, is created for the purpose of carrying a law into execution, all legal intendments are indulged in favor of the orders of such a board until proven otherwise.
2. The board rested its ruling in terminating the contracts on the decrease of teaching positions and loss of school attendance and the evidence in support of the ruling sustained it.
3. The fact that teachers were retained of less seniority would not of itself show any arbitrary action against the board.
4. The fact that the county board had set up no fixed ratio between the teacher load and the minimum student attendance would not make the action taken arbitrary.
5. The Court expressed that much must be left to the discretion of the county board and its superintendent.
6. Together, the board and the superintendent determined that it was necessary to undertake the reduction in teacher personnel on the basis of the reduction in student attendance, and the Court felt it was proper to do so.
Revised statute
Source – Code of Alabama, Recompiled 1958; Titles 52-56.
358. Grounds for cancellation of employment contract, page 142. Cancellation of an employment contract with a teacher on continuing service status may be made for incompetency, insubordination, neglect of duty, immorality, justifiable decrease in the number of teaching positions, or other good and just cause; but cancellation may not be made for political or personal reasons.
360. Finality of action of employing board on contract cancellation: review, page 145. The action of the employing board shall be final in its action on cancellation of a teacher’s contract provided such action was in compliance with the provisions of this chapter and was not arbitrarily unjust. The teacher shall have the right to appeal to the state tenure commission as hereinafter established to obtain a review by the commission as to whether such action was in compliance with this chapter and whether such action was arbitrarily unjust. Such appeal shall be taken by filing within fifteen days after the decision of the employing board a written notice of appeal with the superintendent or chairman of said board. If said appeal is not taken within fifteen days after decision of the board, the board’s decision shall be final. Upon notice of appeal, the board shall cause to be made sufficient copies of the record of proceedings to provide a copy for each of the members of the commission and one for the teacher. The record shall consist of all notices given to the teacher, all papers filed with the board by the teacher in compliance with the provisions of this chapter, transcript of testimony and other evidence and the findings and decisions of the board. The requisite number of copies of the record shall be delivered to the commission and to the teacher within twenty days from the day of the hearing. The commission shall set a date for the hearing at which the board and the teacher, or a representative of each, shall have an opportunity to be heard. The date of such hearing shall be within forty days after the decision of the board, an the teacher and the board shall be given at least five days’ notice of the time and place where the appeal will be considered. On said appeal the commission will consider the case on the record of the proceedings before the said board and the evidence as recorded at such hearing. The commission shall by a majority vote determine the validity of the action by the board, and shall render its decision within five days after its hearing. No action at law shall lite for the recovery of damages for the breach of any employment contract of a teacher in the public schools.
Implications for education
The revised statute does not address itself to seniority. The board of education of the county was created for the purpose of carrying a law into execution with all legal intendments indulged in favor of the orders of such a board until proven otherwise. The revised statute is silent with respect to any Teachers’ Tenure Law and the fact that teachers were retained with less seniority would not of itself show any arbitrary action against the board. It is significant to note there are obvious differences among states and the differences must always be taken into the fullest consideration when interpreting court decisions.
Paden v. Lake-Noxen School District,
Pa44 Luz erne Leg Reg R279 Pennsylvania (1953)
Statute appropriate to case
Source - Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, page 528.
11-1124. Causes for suspension. Any board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for any of the causes hereinafter enumerated: (1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district: (2) curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instructions; (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts, or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Overview
The teacher was employed in the Vocational Agriculture Department of the school district. He had a professional employee’s contract with the district dated August 14, 1947. On August 7, 1950, the board adopted a resolution by a vote of three to two abolishing the department as a result of substantial decline in enrollment in the course. The teacher was notified that his services would not be needed after August 31, 1950.
Issue
Does the school board have the authority to eliminate a department and thereby dismiss a teacher when there is a decline in course enrollments?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
Executive officers are clothed with the responsibility of originating and executing plans for the public good; the presumption is that their acts are on such considerations and their decisions reached in a legal way after investigation. When their actions are challenged, the burden of showing to the contrary rests on those asserting it, and it is a heavy burden; courts can and will interfere only when it is made apparent this discretion has been abused. The board had the authority to eliminate the Vocational Agriculture Department and thereby suspend a professional employee. The board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employees when there is a curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent of schools, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction.
Significant points
1. Executive officers are clothed with the responsibility of originating and executing plans for the public good.
2. When the Board’s actions are challenged, the burden of showing to the contrary rests on those asserting it, and it is a heavy burden. Courts can and will interfere only when it is made apparent thts discretion has been abused.
3. The board had the power to eliminate the department and thereby suspend a professional employee. The board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employees when there is a curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in the class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction.
Revised statute
Source - Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, page 528.
11-1124. Causes for suspension. Any board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for any of the causes hereinafter enumerated: (1) substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district; (2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or education activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction; (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts, or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Implications for education
The revised statue continues to allow the board of school directors to suspend the necessary number of professional employees when there is a curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction. It is interesting to note in this case that no seniority rights of teacher in other areas were involved.
Swisher v. Darden, 511 P.2d 287 New Mexico (1955)
Statue appropriate to case
Source - New Mexico 1953, Volume eleven, chapters 73-76 page 2.
73-1-1. Authority and duties-Administration of oaths. The state board of education, pursuant to section 6, article XII, state constitution, shall be the governing authority of all public elementary and high schools of the state and shall cause the provisions of this chapter to be carried into effect to the end that the school laws of the state shall be properly and uniformly enforced. Said board shall determine educational policies of the state, and shall enact and publish by-laws for the administration of the public school system, which by-laws when enacted and published shall have the force of law. For the purpose of enforcing the provisions of this article, and enacting and publishing the by-laws of this board, the state board of education shall, if necessary, institute legal proceedings. The state board of education shall explain the true intent and meaning of the law, and shall decide without expense to the parties concerned, all controversies and disputes that arise under it, and their decision shall be final The secretary of the state board of education shall explain the true intent and meaning of the law, and shall decide without expense to the parties concerned, all controversies and disputes that arise under it, and their decision shall be final. The secretary of the state board of education shall have authority to administer oaths in any part of the state, to witness in any matter pending before said board.
Overview
Prior to the 1952-1953 school year, the Board of Education operated and maintained a separate high school exclusively for colored students in the ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth grades. A colored teacher had been previously employed for nine successive years and her teaching contract assignment was confined to the separate high school for colored students. The teacher held a teaching contract protected under tenure. During the 1952-1953 school years, there was such a decline in average daily attendance of colored students in the separate high school that the Board of Education, in exercise of its discretion and for reasons of economy and in keeping with good administrative practices, concluded to discontinue and abandon the separate high school for colored students and integrate them with the main Las Cruces High School, effective with the 1953-1954 school year. By letter dated February 9, 1953, the teacher was informed of the action of the Board and that her services would not be required after the close of the 1952-1953 school year. The high school for colored students was discontinued and its students were integrated into the main Las Cruces High School, effective beginning with the 1953-1954 school year. Following her discharge, other teachers were employed in the school system for the school year 1953-1954, but all of such teaching assignments involved combinations of courses in some of which the teacher was qualified and others in which she was not.
Issue
For economic reasons, can a teacher with tenure be terminated on integration of schools even though there were available several positions held by nontenured teachers in the district?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
The Board of Education argued their decision was arrived at in good faith, that the services of the teacher could not be utilized in the Las Cruces school system, and therefore she was terminated. But more was required. To terminate her professional services it was necessary to show affirmatively that there was no position available which she was qualified to teach. The only grounds were set forth in the letter on February 9, 1953 sent to her and it was silent in this respect. On the contrary, there was evidence that several positions were available and were held by non-tenure teachers. A strong attack was made on the finding that the teacher was discharged because the local board felt she would be unable to teach in a classroom where there were white or where there were both white and colored students, and that she was not discharged for economic reasons or because of the closing of the separate high school exclusively for colored students caused by the decline in average daily attendance of colored students.
Significant points
1. The board may discontinue a separate school exclusively for colored students when students are integrated into other schools with the district.
2. To terminate the professional services of the colored teacher, it was necessary to show affirmatively that there was no position available for which the teacher was qualified to teach.
3. The termination notice sent to the teacher must specify that there was no position available for which the teacher is qualified to teach.
Revised statute
Source - New Mexico Statutes Annotated, Replacement Volume II, Part I, 1975 Pocket Supplement, pages 106-108.
77-2-2. State board - Duties. Without limiting those powers grated to the state board pursuant to section 77-2-1 NMSA 1953, the state board shall perform the following duties:
A. Properly and uniformly enforce the provisions of the Public School Code:
B. Determine policy for the operation of all public schools and vocational education programs in the state;
C. Appoint a superintendent of public instruction;
D. Purchase and loan instructional material to students pursuant to the Instructional Material Law (77-13-1 to 77-13-14);
E. Designate courses of instruction to be taught in all public schools in the state;
F. Assess and evaluate those private schools which desire state accreditation;
G. Determine the qualifications for and issue a certificate to any person teaching, assisting teachers, supervising an instructional program, counseling, providing special instructional services or administering in public schools according to law and according to a system of classification adopted and published by the state board;
H. Suspend or revoke a certificate held by a certified school instructor or administrator according to law and according to a system of classification adopted and published by the state board;
I. Make full and complete reports on consolidation of school districts to the legislature;
J. Prescribe courses of instruction, requirements for graduation and standards for all schools subject to its jurisdiction;
K. Adopt regulations for the administration of all public schools and bylaws for its own administration;
L. Require periodic reports on forms prescribed by it from all public schools and attendance reports from private schools;
M. Authorize adult educational programs to be conducted in schools under its jurisdiction and promulgate and publish regulations governing all such adult educational programs;
N. Require all accrediting agencies for public schools in the state to act with its approval;
O. Accept and receive all grants of money from the federal government or any other agency for public school purposes and disburse the money in the manner and for the purpose specified in the grant;
P. Require prior approval for any educational program in a public school which is to be conducted, sponsored, carried on, or caused to be carried on by a private organization or agency;
Q. Approve all rules or regulations promulgated by any association or organization attempting to regulate any public school activity and invalidate any rule or regulation in conflict with any regulation promulgated by the state board. The state board shall have no power or control over the rules or regulations or the bylaws governing the administration of the internal organization of the association or organization;
R. Review decisions made by the governing board or officials of any organization or association regulating any public school activity and any decision of the state board shall be final its respect thereto;
S. Accept or reject any charitable gift, grant, devise or bequest. The particular gift, grant, devise or bequest accepted shall be considered an asset of the state;
T. Establish and maintain regional centers, at its discretion, for conducting co-operative services between public schools and school districts within and among such regions and to facilitate regulation and evaluation of school programs;
U. Assess and evaluate for accreditation purposes at least one-third (1/3) of all public schools each year through visits by department personnel to investigate the adequacy of pupil gain in standard required subject matter, adequacy of pupil activities, functional feasibility of public school and school district organization, adequacy of staff preparation, and other matters bearing upon the education of qualified students;
V. Provide for management and other necessary personnel to operate any public school or school district which has failed to meet requirements of law, state board standards or state board regulations; Provided, that such operation of the public school or district shall not include any consolidation or reorganization without the approval of the local board of such district. Until such time as requirements of law, standards or regulations have been met and compliance is assured, the powers and duties of the local school board shall be suspended; and
W. Require a report from each school district by August 1 of each year which indicates by fact what effect the current distribution formula an other financial arrangement have had on educational program operations and student progress dung the prior year, and what changes if any, are needed. The state board shall evaluate each report, consolidate findings and present a state report with recommendations to the ensuing legislative session.
Implications for education
Based on the revised statute, the court would reaffirm its position that in order to terminate the professional services of the colored teacher, it would be necessary to show affirmatively that there was no position available for which the teacher was qualified to teach. Seniority rights are reaffirmed for teachers.
Welsko v. School Board, 119 A.2d 43,
Pennsylvania (1956)
Statute appropriate to case
Source - Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, page 532.
11-1125 (b) Suspensions and reinstatements; how made. (b) In cases in which suspensions are to be made, professional employes shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights, acquired within the school district of current employment, where no differences in rating are found. Seniority rights shall also prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating. In cases where there are substantial differences in rating of those under consideration for suspension, seniority shall be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in the rating cards. Where there is a merger, jointure or union district formed, all professional employes shall retain the seniority rights they had at the time of such merger, jointure or union.
Overview
A teacher taught in the elementary grades of the school district from September, 1916 to June, 1926, and then taught in the high school from September 1, 1934 to June 9, 1952, when he was suspended because of a decrease in pupil enrollment. The teacher brought legal action against the Board, stipulating that while the School Board was justified in reducing the teaching staff on account of the District’s financial condition, it was not warranted in suspending him in favor of five other retained teachers with less seniority rights than his.
Issue
Can a school board suspend a teacher having seniority on account of the financial condition of the school district, while retaining teachers with few years of service?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
The School Board did not contest the general principle of seniority rights but asserted that although five of the retained teachers had fewer years of service than the dismissed teacher, they taught subjects for which the dismissed teacher was not qualified to teach. In this connection, the dismissed teacher admits that three of those teachers taught subject for which there were no other certified teachers available and, consequently, could not be replaced. The dismissed teacher argued, however, that the subjects taught by other teachers on the teaching staff, and that, therefore, they should have been suspended prior to him.
The court was specific in its opinion that where a reduction in teaching staff is called for, the Board’s first consideration should be how to retain those teacher with the longest years of service by realigning the staff so that the remaining teachers, after the reduction has been implemented, can teach the subjects of those who, because of lesser seniority rights, have been suspended. Also, the court pointed out the very stability of our schools depends on retaining those teachers who because of long years of experience and devotion have earned the obedience of the pupils, the admiration of the parents, and the respect of the community. The court emphasized that it was not the intent of the Legislature to impose the Tenure Act so as to interfere with the control of school policy and courses of study selected by the administrative bodies. But if seniority rights of teachers could be circumvented by the expedient of reassigning teachers so that there would be no teachers with less continuous years of service teaching subjects which the suspended teacher was qualified to teach, obvious inequities would result, as happened in this case.
Significant points
1. Where a reduction in teaching staff is called for, the Board’s first consideration should be how to retain those teachers with the longest years of service by realigning the staff so that the remaining teachers, after the reduction has been implemented, can teach the subjects of those who, because of lesser seniority rights, have been suspended.
2. Although laborious, the administration should realign the teaching staff in such a way so that the remaining teachers, after the reduction has been implemented, can teach the subjects of those who have been suspended.
3. The very stability of our schools depends on retaining those teachers who because of long years of experience and devotion have earned the obedience of the pupils, the admiration of the parents, and the respect of the community.
Revised statute
Source - Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, Pocket Part, 1975-1976, page 123.
11.1125. Suspensions and reinstatements; how made. (b) In cases in which suspensions are to be made, professional employes shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights, acquired within the school district of current employment, where no differences in rating are found. Seniority rights shall also prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating. In cases where there are substantial difference in rating of those under consideration for suspension, seniority shall be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in the rating cards. Where there is a merger, jointure or union district formed or when new school districts are established as the result of reorganization of school districts pursuant to Article II, subdivision (i) of this act, all professional employes shall retain the seniority rights they had at the time of such merger, jointure, union or reorganization of school districts.
Implications for education
The court expressed that where a reduction in teaching staff is called for, the Board’s first consideration should be how to retain those teachers with the longest years of service by realigning the staff. Although laborious, the administration should realign the teaching staff in such a way so that the remaining teachers can teach the subjects of those who have been suspended. It is interesting to note that in this case seniority was considered to extend across grade levels, whereas in other cases the contrary view held. However, the teacher had taught at both levels.
Walker v. School District of the City of Scranton, 12 A.2d 46,
Pennsylvania (1959)
Statute appropriate to case
Source - Laws of Pennsylvania 1939, page 486.
Section 1205 (b). Whenever it shall become necessary to decrease the number of professional employes by reason of substantial decrease of pupil population within the school district, the board of school directors (or board of public education) may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for the causes hereinafter enumerated (but only in the inverse order of the appointment of such employes):
(1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district:
(2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors (or board of public education), approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction;
(3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts, or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Whenever a board of school directors (or board of public education) decreases the size of the staff of professional employes under the provisions of this act, the suspensions to be made shall be determined by the count superintendent of schools or the district superintendent, as the case may be, on the basis of efficiency rank determined by ratings made in accordance with standards and regulations, determined by rating cards prepared by the Department of Public Instruction. It shall hereafter be the duty of boards of school directors to cause to be established a permanent record system, containing ratings for each teacher employed within the district, and copies of all ratings for the year shall be transmitted to the teacher upon his or her request, or, if any rating during the year is unsatisfactory, a copy of same shall be transmitted to the teacher concerned. No teacher shall be dismissed under this act unless such rating records have been kept on file by the board of school directors.
In cases in which suspensions are to be made, professional employes shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights where no differences in rating are found. Seniority rights shall also prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating. In cases where there are substantial differences in rating of those under consideration for suspension, seniority shall be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in the rating cards hereinbefore referred to: Provided, That in cases in which suspensions are to be made during the school term immediately following the effective date of this act, professional employees shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights.
No empolyee suspended as aforesaid shall be prevented from engaging in other occupation during the period of such suspension. Such professional employes shall be reinstated in the inverse order of their suspension. No new appointment shall be made while there are suspended professional employes available, who are properly certified to fill such vacancies.
Overview
Teachers were appointed as professional employees of the school district under what may be referred to as the “Scranton plan of appointment.” This plan was devised by the board of school directors in an effort to ascertain those best qualified to teach the courses offered in the curriculums of the Scranton schools. In operation, the Scranton plan involved dividing teaching assignments into primary grades, intermediate grades, subjects taught in the high schools, and special departments, such as kindergarten, physical education, art and music. Teachers were examined by the school board to determine their strongest qualifications to teach those courses in which they specialized in college. They were rated by the school board and appointed to a specific teaching assignment.
The dismissed teachers, with the exception of two, held normal school certificates stating that they specialized in the intermediate curriculum which corresponds to the curriculum of the intermediate grades, and are licensed to teach the curriculum of the elementary schools, which were divided into primary and intermediate grades. The two other teachers held college certificates authorizing them to teach the curriculum of the elementary schools and high schools. All of the teachers qualified under the “Scranton plan of appointment” to teach in that teaching assignment. None of them qualified under the plan to teach in any other assignment. The school board suspended the necessary number of professional employees in each teaching assignment where a decrease in pupil population occurred. The teachers contended a general right to any position with the school district for which they were licensed to teach and that the action of the school board in limiting that right to specific teaching assignments was unfair.
Issue
When it becomes necessary to decrease the number of professional employees by reason of substantial decrease in pupil population within a school district, can the board suspend the necessary number of employees without regard to seniority?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
Each school board has the authority to administer the public school system within its school district. To enable it to do so efficiently and in the best interests of the children, it may adopt and enforce reasonable rules and regulations. The school board of the City of Scranton adopted the “Scranton plan of appointment” of professional employees and classified the teaching assignments. The teachers admitted that the school board acted within its authority in so doing. This being true, it necessarily follows that the teacher were appointed to the intermediate grades, which limitation definitely appeared in the minutes of the board, and, therefore, the school board properly confined the inquiry as to seniority rights to that specific teaching assignment. The teachers failed to realize that by the very provisions of the School Code, the suspension of a professional employee is controlled by the terms of his appointment and not for which they are licensed to teach. It could not be argued that the Legislature intended to impair the beneficial results of a sound and sensible plan of school management. The aim and objective of the school system is to provide the best education for the children.
Significant points
1. Each school board has the authority to administer the public school system within its school district. To enable it to do so efficiently and in the best interest of the children, it may adopt and enforce reasonable rules and regulations.
2. By the very provisions of the School code, the suspension of a professional employee is controlled by the terms of his appointment and not for which they are licensed to teach.
3. The aim and objective of the school system is to provide the best education for the children.
Revised statute
Source - Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, page 528.
11-1124. Causes for suspension. Any board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for any of the causes hereinafter enumerated: (1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district; (2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction; (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts, or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Implications for education
The school board had the authority to administer the public school system within the district. In administering its unique system, teachers were examined by the School board to determine their strongest qualifications to teach those courses in which they specialized in college. Under the “Scranton plan of appointment,” the school board classified teaching assignments and properly confined the seniority rights of teachers to specific teaching by the terms of their appointment and not by what they were licensed, qualified, or certified to teach. In Ging v. Board of Education of Duluth and Walker, the court was consistent in its ruling of confining seniority rights of teachers to specific teaching assignments. But in Caperelli v. School District of the borough of Winston, Flannery v. Jenkins Township School Directors, Walsh v. Board of Trustees of Redlands High School District, Seidel v. Board of Education of Ventnor City, Watson v. Burnett, Davidson v. Board of Education of the City School District of East Cleveland, Swisher v. Darden, Welsko v. School Board and Board of School Trustees v. O’Brien, where a unique local plan for appointment did not exist, teachers were entitled to teaching positions in accordance with their certification, qualifications and seniority.
Ashby v. School township of Liberty, 98 N.W.2d 848, Iowa (1959)
Statute appropriate to case
Source - Volume I, code of Iowa 1958, page 810.
279.13 Contracts with teachers–automatic continuation–exchange of teachers. Contracts with teachers must be in writing, and shall state the length of time the school is to be taught, the compensation per week of five days, or month of four weeks, and that the same shall be invalid if the teacher is under contact with another board of directors in the state of Iowa to teach covering the same period of time, until such contract shall have been released, an such other matters as may be agreed upon, which may include employment for a term not exceeding the ensuing school year, except as otherwise authorized and payment by the calendar or school month signed by the president and teacher, and shall be filed with the secretary before the teacher enters upon performance of the contract but no such contract shall be entered into with any teacher for the ensuing year or any part thereof until after the organization of the board.
Boards of school directors shall have power to arrange for an exchange of teachers in the public schools under their jurisdiction with other public school corporations either within or without the state or the United States on such terms and conditions as are approved by the state superintendent of public instruction and when so arranged and approved the board may continue to pay the salary of the teacher exchanged as provided in the contract between said teacher the board for a period of one year, and such teacher shall not lose any privileges of tenure, old-age, and survivors’ insurance or certification as a result of such exchange. Said contract may be renewed each year as determined by the employing school board provided that the visiting exchange teacher is paid in full for the service rendered by the school authorities with whom his contract is made. Such exchange teachers must have qualifications equivalent to the regular teacher employed by the board and who is serving as the exchange teacher and must secure a special certificate covering the subjects designated for him to teach in the public schools in which the instruction is given. The state superintendent of public instruction is hereby authorized to formulate, establish, and enforce any reasonable regulation necessary to govern the exchange of teachers as provided in this paragraph, including the waiver of Iowa certification requirements for teachers who are regularly certified or licensed in the jurisdiction from which they come.
Said contract shall remain in force and effect for the period stated in the contract and thereafter shall be automatically continued in force and effect for equivalent periods, except as modified or terminated by mutual agreement of the board of directors and the teacher, until terminated as hereinafter provided. On or before April 15, of each year the teacher may file his written resignation with the secretary of the board of directors, or the board may by a majority vote of the elected membership of the board, cause said contract to be terminated by written notification of termination by a registered letter mailed to the teacher not later than the tenth day of April; in event of such termination, it shall take effect at the close of the school year in which the contract is terminated by either of said methods. The teacher shall have the right to protest the action of the board, and to a hearing thereon, by notifying the president or secretary of the board in writing of such protest within twenty days of the receipt by him of the notice of terminate, in which event the board shall hold a public hearing on such protest at the next regular meeting of the board, or at a special meeting called by the president of the board for that purpose, and shall give notice in writing to the teacher of the time of the hearing on the protest. Upon the conclusion of the hearing the board shall determine the question on continuance or discontinuance of the contract by a roll call vote entered in the minutes of the board, and the action of the board shall be final. The foregoing provisions for termination shall not affect the power of the board of directors to discharge a teacher for cause under the provisions of Section 279.24.
Overview
The teacher entered into a written contract with the school township on April 5, 1957, to teach in the school nine months beginning September 2, 1957. She taught until October 3 when the board closed the school because of lack of sufficient pupils. On March 7, 1958, the teacher brought legal action against the board to recover the salary provided by the contract for the school year less the amount paid her.
Issue
Is the teacher entitled to compensation, when a school is closed because of lack of sufficient pupils?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
The 1945 amendment to the first sentence of 279.13 was the key factor in the case. The amended sentence clearly recognized the right of both parties, the board and teacher, to terminate the contract by mutual agreement as well as by resignation by the teacher or vote by the board not later than April. Unless this was true, the language “except as modified or terminated by mutual agreement” was entirely meaningless. This was another key factor to the teacher’s defense that her contract may be terminated only by resignation of the teacher or vote of the board in April. The Court further expressed that its duty was to give interpretation to the statute and what its language calls for and not to speculate as to the probable legislative intent apart from the wording used.
The teacher was entitled to recover the salary provided by the contract for the school year less the amount paid her.
Significant points
1. The 1945 amendment to the first sentence of 279.13 was the key factor in the case. The amended sentence clearly recognized the right of both parties, the board and teacher, to terminate the contract by mutual agreement as well as by resignation by the teacher or vote by the board not later than April 15th.
Revised statue
Source - Iowa Code Annotated, sections 257 to 279, pages 565-567.
279.13 Contracts with teachers - automatic continuation - exchange of teachers. Contracts with teachers must be in writing, and shall state the length of time the school is to be taught, the compensation per week of five days, or month of four weeks, and that the same shall be invalid if the teacher is under contract with another board of directors in the state of Iowa to teach covering the same period of time, until such contract shall have been released, and such other matters as may be agreed upon, which may include employment for a term not exceeding the ensuing school year, except as otherwise authorized, and payment by the calendar or school month, signed by the president and teacher, and shall be filed with the secretary before the teacher enters upon performance of the contract but no such contract shall be entered into with any teacher for the ensuing year or any part thereof until after the organization of the board.
Boards of school directors shall have power to arrange for an exchange of teachers in the public schools under their jurisdiction with other public school corporations either within or without the state or the United States on such terms and conditions as are approved by the state superintendent of public instruction and when so arranged and approved the board may continue to pay the salary of the teacher exchanged as provided in the contract between said teacher and the board for a period of one year, and such teacher shall not lose any privileges of tenure, old-age, and survivors’ insurance, or certification as a result of such exchange. Said contract may be renewed each year as determined by the employing school board provided that the visiting exchange teacher is paid in full for the service rendered by the school authorities with whom his contract is made. Such exchange teachers must have qualifications equivalent to the regular teacher employed by the board and who is serving as the exchange teacher and must secure a special certificate covering the subjects designated for him to teach in the public schools in which the instruction is given. The state superintendent of public instruction is hereby authorized to formulate, establish, and enforce any reasonable regulation necessary to govern the exchange of teachers as provided in this paragraph, including the waiver of Iowa certification requirements for teachers who are regularly certificated or licensed in the jurisdiction from which they come.
Said contract shall remain in force and effect for the period stated in the contract and thereafter shall be automatically continued in force and effect for equivalent periods, except as modified or terminated by mutual agreement of the board of directors and the teacher, until terminated as hereinafter provided, however, no contract shall be tendered by the employing board to a teacher under its jurisdiction prior to March 1, nor be required to be assigned by the teacher and returned to the board in less than twenty-one days after being tendered. On or before April 15, of each year the teacher may file his written resignation with the secretary of the board of directors, or the board may be a majority vote of the elected membership of the board, cause said contract to be terminated by written notification of termination, by a certified letter mailed to the teacher not later than the tenth day of April; provided, however, that at least ten days prior to mailing any notice of termination the board or its agent shall inform the teacher in writing that (1) the board is considering termination of said contract and that (2) the teacher shall have the right to a private conference with the board if the teacher files a request therefore with the president or secretary of the board within five days, and if within five days after receipt by the teacher of such written information the teacher files with the president or secretary of the board a written request for a conference and a written statement of specific reasons for considering termination, the board shall, before any notice of termination is mailed, give the teacher written notice of the time and place of such conference and at the request of the teacher, a written statement of specific reasons for considering termination, and shall hold a private conference between the board and teacher and his representative if the teacher appears at such time and place. No school board member shall be liable for any damages to any teacher if any such statement is determined to be erroneous as long as such statement was made in good faith. In event of such termination, it shall take effect at the close of the school year in which the contract is terminated by either or said methods. The teacher shall have the right to protest the action of the board, and to a hearing thereon, by notifying the president or secretary of the board in writing of such protest within twenty days of the receipt by him of the notice to terminate, in which event the board shall hold a public hearing on such protest at the next regular meeting of the board, or at a special meeting called by the president of the board for that purpose, and shall give notice in writing to the teacher of the time of the hearing on the protest. Upon the conclusion of the hearing the board shall determine the question of continuance or discontinuance of the contract by roll call vote entered in the minutes of the board, and the action of the board shall be final. The forgoing provisions for termination shall not affect the power of the board of directors to discharge a teacher for cause under the provisions of section 279.24. The term “teacher” as used in this section shall include all certified school employees, including superintendents.
Implications for education
The amended first sentence of 279.13 clearly recognized the right of both parties, the board and teacher, to terminate the contract by mutual agreement as well as by resignation by the teacher or vote by the board not later than April 15th. The important implication in this case is that where specific dates are included in statutes any deviation tends to be interpreted as a violation of procedure. Courts will support procedure as stated.
Board of School Trustees v. O’Brien, 190 A.2d 23
Delaware (1963)
Statute appropriate to case
Source - Delaware Code Annotated, Volume 8, Titles 12-14, 1970 Cumulative Supplementary Pamphlet, page 283.
1411. Reason for termination. Termination at the end of the school year shall be for one or more of the following reasons: immorality, misconduct in office; incompetency; disloyalty; neglect of duty; willful and persistent insubordination; a reduction in the number of teachers required as a result of decreased enrollment or a decrease in education services. The board shall have power to suspend any teacher pending a hearing if the situation warrants such action.
Overview
Following a reorganization of various schools of the district, the teacher, beginning in September 1961, taught instrumental music only. The responsibility for teaching the other courses of music in the district were assumed by a teacher who had not achieved tenure status. During the 1961-1962 school year, enrollment in the instrumental music program declined approximately 42%. On April 24, 1962, the Board of School Trustees voted to discontinue all instruction in instrumental music. In addition to taking this action the board notified the teacher, by the formal communication required by Code 1411, that because of the discontinuance of instruction in instrumental music, the teacher’s services were no longer necessary.
Issue
When instruction in instrumental music is discontinued because of decreased enrollment, can a music teacher with tenure and certification to teach all forms of music instruction be dismissed while a non-tenured teacher is retained?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
It was clear that the board, in making its decision, relied upon the statutory language allowing dismissal for “a reduction in the number of teachers required as a result of decreased enrollment or a decrease in education services.”
Dismissal of tenure teachers as a result of a reduction in service or enrollment does not apply if there are non-tenure teachers teaching in the general area of competence, interest, and training of the tenure teacher.
The position taken by the Board would, in the Court’s opinion, be inconsistent with the intent and purpose of the Tenure Law. Certainly no one would deny the right of the school board to embark upon an experimental program of instruction, and a tenure teacher may not complain of the discontinuance, even though there are no other subjects in which he is competent to teach.
The teacher was certified to teach all forms of music instruction. He did not demand the right to replace a non-tenure teacher in any subject other than that of his principal area of competence, certified training, and interest. The Court, therefore, held that the board could not properly dismiss the teacher, while, at the same time, retain a non-tenure teacher as director of the music department of the school district.
Significant points
1. Dismissal of tenure teachers as a result of a reduction in service or enrollment does not apply if there are non-tenure teachers teaching in the general area of competence, interest, and training of the tenure teacher.
2. The board cannot properly dismiss a tenure teacher, while at the same time, retain a non-tenured teacher to teach in the principal area of competence.
Revised statute
Source - Delaware Code Annotated Revised 1974, Titles 13-15, Volume 8, page 220.
1411. Reasons for termination. Termination at the end of the school year shall be for 1 or more of the following reasons: Immorality, misconduct in office, incompetency, disloyalty, neglect of duty, wilful and persistent insubordination, a reduction in the number of teachers required as a result of decreased enrollment or a decrease in education services. The board shall have power to suspend any teacher pending a hearing if the situation warrants such action.
Implications for education
In this case the board could not dismiss a teacher protected by tenure while at the same time, retaining a non-tenured teacher to teach in the principal area of professional competence. The decision in this case is consistent with the rulings in Caperelli v. School District of the Borough of Winston, Flannery v. Jenkins Township School Directors, Walsh v. Board of Trustees of Redlands High School District, Seidel v. Board of Education of Ventnor City, Watson v. Burnett, Davidson v. Board of Education of the city School District of East Cleveland, Swisher v. Darden, and Welsko v. School Board. The decision in this case is not consistent with Walker v. School District of the City of Scranton, where the school board under the “Scranton plan of appointment” classified teaching assignments and confined seniority rights of teachers to specific teaching assignments. It is significant to note there are obvious inconsistencies among states and the differences must always be taken into the fullest consideration when interpreting court decisions.
Linden School District No. 24 v. Porter 130 N.W.2d 76,
North Dakota (1964)
Statutes appropriate to case
Source - North Dakota Century Code, Annotated, Volume three, titles 13-19, pages 255-56.
15-25-08. Teachers-Employment, discharge, qualifications-Written contract. The school board shall employ the teachers of the district and may dismiss a teacher at any time for plain violation of contract, gross immorality, or flagrant neglect of duty. No person related by blood or marriage to any member of the board shall be hired as a teacher without the unanimous consent of the board. No person shall be permitted to teach in any public school who is not the holder of a teacher’s certificate or a permit to teach, valid in the county or district in which the school is situated. Every contract for the employment of a teacher shall be in writing, and shall be executed before the teacher begins to teach in such school, and each such contract shall provide that in the event of the discontinuance of a school term for lack of attendance as provided in this chapter, no compensation shall be paid to the teacher from the date of such discontinuance. Teachers holding a second grade professional certificate shall not receive less than one thousand eighty dollars per school term, and teachers holding a first grade professional certificate shall not receive less than one thousand three hundred fifty dollars per school term, but this section shall not require teachers holding certificates of the same grade to receive the same salaries.
15-25-09. School term-Minimum-Discontinuance of term-Arbitration. The terms in a common school district shall be arranged to accommodate pupils of all ages and to furnish school privileges equally and equitably to all pupils in the district. Each common school shall be kept in session for not less than one hundred seventy-five days of classroom instruction in each school year, except that any school may be discontinued when the average attendance of pupils therein shall be less than six for ten consecutive days, if proper and convenient school facilities for the pupils can be provided in some other school in the territory of the closed school until such time as the school may be reopened by the board. Any day in which classes cannot be held because of Acts of God, epidemic or failure of physical facilities shall be included in the one hundred seventy-five days provided for in this section. In determining what constitutes proper and convenient school facilities, the board shall consider the distance of each child from the nearest other school, and all surrounding circumstances. The board may furnish transportation to the nearest school or may pay an extra allowance for the transportation or may furnish the equivalent thereof in tuition or lodging at some other public school In case of a dispute between a patron and the board as to whether the board has furnished or arranged to furnish adequate facilities, the matter may be submitted by the patron to the board of arbitration consisting of the county superintendent of schools, one arbitrator named by the patron, and one arbitrator named by the board, and the determination of the arbitrators, after hearing, shall be binding. The board shall re-open any school which has been closed for lack of attendance under this section for the next ensuing term upon the written demand of the parents or guardians of six or more children of compulsory school age residing within two and one-half miles of the school. The parents or guardians of at least four such children must be residents of the district. The board may reopen school at any time upon its own motion.
Overview
The teacher had been employed in the Byron School District for the school years 1957-1959. On April 14, 1959, her contract was renewed for the year 1959-1960. The contract contained provisions required by the School Code and that the school “May be discontinued when the attendance falls below 6 for 10 consecutive days, and that no compensation shall be received by said teacher from the date of discontinuance.” At the time the teacher’s contract was renewed it was anticipated that there would be at least six students in attendance at the Bryon School during the year. However, no more than four students ever attended. In November 1959, a public meeting was held in Byron School to discuss the possibility of annexation to another district. On December 7, 1959, the Bryon District School Board and many of the patrons of the district met with the School Board of Linden District to discuss a petition for annexation. The annexation of Byron School District to Linden School district became effective on February 2, 1960. On February 15, 1960, the teacher was notified that her contract had been nonrenewed.
Issue
Can a teacher’s contract be legally terminated during the school year when the average attendance declines for a specified period of time?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
The teacher was legally terminated. Her teaching contract contained provisions required by law that the school “may be discontinued when the attendance falls below 6 for 10 consecutive days, and that no compensation shall be received by said teacher from the date of such discontinuance.” The School code required that “Every contract for employment of a teacher shall be in writing and shall be executed before the teacher begins to teach in such school, and each such contract shall provide that in the event of a discontinuance of a school term for lack of attendance as provided in this chapter, no compensation shall be paid to the teacher from the date of such discontinuance.”
Since at no time during the school year of 1959 -1960 did the attendance ever exceed four, the Bryon School term was legally subject to the discontinuance at any time the Board made other arrangements for the four pupils in attendance.
Significant points
1. Every contract for the employment of a teacher is to be in writing and is to be executed before the teacher beings to teach in such school, and each such contract should provide that in the event of a discontinuance of a school term for lack of attendance, no compensation will be paid to the teacher from the date of such discontinuance.
Revised statute
Source - North Dakota Century code, Replacement Vol. 3, Pocket Supplement.
15-47-33. Length of elementary and secondary school year term, page 115. All elementary and secondary schools in this state shall provide at least one hundred eighty days of classroom instruction during each school term. Any three holidays selected from those listed in subsections 2 through 10 of section 15-38-04.1 which have been decided upon after consultation with the teachers, and any day in which classes cannot be held because of acts of God, epidemic, or failure of physical facilities shall be included in the one hundred eighty days provided for in this section and teachers shall be paid therefore.
15-47-38. Legislative intent in employment of teachers - Notification of discharge or failure to renew-Hearing, pages 116-118.
1. The legislative assembly, in recognition of the value of good employer-employee relationships between school boards of this state and the teachers employed in the school systems, the need to recruit and retain qualified teachers in this state, and further in recognition of the many intangibles in evaluating the performance of individual members of the teaching profession, urges that each school board of this state ensure through formally adopted policies, that channels of communication exist between the board, supervisory personnel, and teachers employed within its school system. In the very sensitive area of discharge of teachers for cause prior to the expiration of the term of the teacher’ contracts, or in decisions not to renew the contracts of teachers, school boards shall give serious consideration to the damage that can result to the professional stature and reputation of such teachers, which stature and reputation were acquired only after the expenditure of substantial time and money in obtaining the necessary qualifications for such profession and in the years of practicing the profession of teaching; and that in all decisions of school boards relating to discharge or refusal to renew contracts, all actions of the board be taken with consideration and dignity, giving the maximum consideration to basic fairness and decency.
2. The school board of any school district contemplating discharging a teacher for cause prior to the expiration of the term of the teacher’s contract shall notify such teacher in writing of such fact at least ten days prior to the date of contemplated discharge. Such teacher shall be informed in writing of the time and place for a special meeting of the school board to be held for such purpose prior to the final decision on the matter. Such teacher shall also be informed in writing of his right to demand a specification of the reasons for such discharge, which must on demand of the teacher be furnished not less than five days prior to said meeting to be held on the question of contemplated discharge. Such reasons shall be sufficient to justify the contemplated action of the board and shall not be frivolous or arbitrary. At the meeting with the board, if the teacher has informed the board in writing at least two days prior thereto that he will contest the charges brought against him, the board must sustain the charges with evidence produced at such hearing with witnesses who shall be subject to cross-examination by the teacher or his representative. The teacher may then produce such witnesses as may be necessary to refute the charges, which witnesses shall be subject to cross-examination. The proceedings may, at the request of either party, be transcribed by a court reporter at the expense of the person requesting such transcript and the witnesses may on demand of either party be placed under oath by a person authorized by law to administer oaths. Any person testifying falsely under oath shall be guilty of perjury and punished according to law. The meeting shall be an executive session of the board unless both the school board and the teacher requesting such meeting shall agree that it shall be open to other persons and the public. The teacher may be represented at the meeting by two representatives of his own choosing. In addition to board members, the school district clerk, and the superintendent, the school board may be represented by two other representatives of its own choosing at such executive session. If the teacher so requests they shall be granted a continuance of not to exceed seven days by the board unless for good cause otherwise shown. No cause of action for libel or slander shall lie for any statement expressed wither orally or in writing at any executive session of the school board held for the purposes provided for in this section.
3. A school board may dismiss a teacher, effective immediately, for any of the following causes: a. Immoral conduct, insubordination, or conviction of a felony; b. Conduct unbecoming a teacher which required the immediate removal of a teacher from his classroom duties; c. Failure without justifiable cause to perform contracted duties; d. Gross inefficiency which the teacher has failed to correct after reasonable written notice; or e. continuing physical or mental disability which renders him unfit or unable to perform his duties as a teacher.
4. The school board by unanimous vote may suspend the teacher from regular duty if such action is deemed desirable during the process of termining if cause for dismissal exists. If, upon final decision, the teacher is dismissed, the board may in its discretion determine the teacher’s salary or compensation as of the date of suspension. If the final decision is favorable to the teacher, there shall be no abatement of salary or compensation.
5. The school board of any school district contemplating not renewing a teacher’s contract, as provided in section 15-47-27, shall notify such teacher in writing of such contemplated nonrenewal no later than April first. Such teacher shall be informed in writing of the time, which shall not be later than April seventh, and place of a special school board meeting for the purpose of discussing and acting upon such contemplated nonrenewal. Such teacher shall also be informed in writing of the reasons for such nonrenewal. Such reasons shall be sufficient to justify the contemplated action of the board and shall not be frivolous or arbitrary but shall be related to the ability, competence, or qualifications of the teacher as a teacher, or the necessities of the district such as lack of funds calling for a reduction in the teacher staff. At the meeting with the board the teacher may then produce such evidence as may be necessary to evaluate the reasons for nonrenewal, and either party may produce witnesses to confirm or refute the reasons. The school board shall given an explanation and shall discuss and confirm at such meeting its reasons for the contemplated nonrenewal of the contract. The meeting shall be an executive session of the board unless both the school board and the teacher shall agree that it shall be open to other persons or the public. The teacher may be represented at such meeting by any two representatives of his own choosing. In addition to board members, the school district clerk, and the superintendent, the school board may be represented by two other representatives of its own choosing at such executive session. Upon such hearing, if the teacher so requests, he shall be granted a continuance of not to exceed seven days. No cause of action for libel or slander shall lie for any statement expressed either orally or in writing at any executive session of the school board held for the purposes provided for in this section. The determination not to renew a contract if made in good faith shall be final and binding on all parties. Final notice of the determination not to renew a contract shall be given in writing by April fifteenth as provided in section 15-47-27.
Implications for education
It is significant to note the importance of the given statute in relation to procedure. In Ashby v. School township of Liberty, specific dates were included in the statute and any deviation tended to be interpreted as a violation of procedure. In Linden, the teacher’s contract contained provisions required by law that the school may be discontinued when the attendance falls below a specified number for a specific number of days and that no compensation will be received by the teacher from the date of discontinuance of the school. Deviation from statutes tends to be interpreted as a violation of procedures, and courts will support procedure as stated.
Chambers v. Hendersonville City Board of Education,
364 F.2d 189 North Carolina (1966)
Statute appropriate to case
Source - United States Code, Annotated, Title 42.
1983. Civil action for deprivation of rights, page 201. Every person who, under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom or usage, of any State or Territory, subjects, or causes to be subjected, any citizen of the United States or other person within the jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the party injured in an action at law, suit in equity, or other proper proceeding for redress.
AMENDMENT XIV. - CITIZENSHIP: PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES: DUE PROCESS: EQUAL PROTECTION: APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATION: DISQUALIFICATION OF OFFICERS: PUBLIC DEPT: ENFORCEMENT, pages 188-189.
Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the united States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of person in each State, excluding Indians not taxes. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may be vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.
Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States or any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.
Section 5. The congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
Overview
Prior to the school year 1964-1965 the school system of Hendersonville consisted of three “white” and one consolidated Negro schools. In that year some pupil desegregation occurred on a freedom of choice basis as the result of litigation by the Negroes, but faculties remained rigidly segregated. There were approximately 81 white teachers employed at the three white schools and 24 Negro teachers at the consolidated Negro school. At the end of this school year the Negro enrollment declined for 498 to 281 because 217 Negro students who had attended the consolidated Negro school from adjoining counties were by court order integrated into their respective county schools. For the school year 1965-1966, the Board abandoned its freedom of choice plan and integrated the remaining Negro pupils into the Hendersonville system on a single geographical zone basis. For this year the number of teacher jobs in the system was reduced by five. Of the twenty-four Negro teachers in the system, only eight were offered re-employment for the year 1965-1966, although every white teacher who indicated the desire was re-employed together with 14 new white teachers, all of whom were without previous experience. In may of 1965, before he knew how many vacancies would exist for the next year, the superintendent advised the Negro teachers which ones would be retained. Acting on the assumption that their jobs had gone out of existence because of the withdrawal of the 217 Negro pupils, the superintendent recommended that the School Board retain only the number of seven Negro teachers which was the approximate “pro rata” allotment based upon the number of the remaining Negro pupils under the North Carolina teacher-pupil ration. On cross-examination of the superintendent, the School Board’s attorney brought out that he and the superintendent had discussed the problem and concluded that the Negro pupils should have “adequate representation at the teacher level.” In its answer the School Board unequivocally disclosed its view of the matter by stating that the Negro teachers had “lost their jobs as a result of the social progress of integration.”
Decision
Court decided for the teachers.
Characteristics of the decision
The Negro teachers were entitled to an order requiring the Board to set up definite objective standards for the employment and retention of teachers and to apply them to all teachers alike in a manner compatible with the requirements of the due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Constitution. Some of the following explanations indicate situations where unfair methods prevailed.
The school superintendent testified that he made the effective decisions of all employment contracts. The report submitted by the principal of the Negro school was the only report submitted in writing. It was extremely elaborate and meticulous, listing, with respect to each teacher such as: personality, philosophy, reputation, general appearance, physical defects, attitude, speech, optimism, love for children, age group in which interested, whether the principal wanted the teacher in his school, sense of humor, ability to discipline children, reaction of pupils and parents to teacher, and the principal’s general appraisal of the teacher. On the other hand, the white principals’ reports were oral, they could not remember details with respect to individual teachers, indeed one testified that he was not required to appraise his teachers but had done so voluntarily, and none testified that their reports attempted a comparative rating of their teacher. In short, the Negro principal’s report clearly reflected the knowledge that the number of Negro teachers was to be drastically reduced; consequently, his teachers were graded comparatively while those of the white principals were used only to eliminate those teachers, who, in the opinion of the principal or the superintendent, fell below a minimum standard. The formal oral reports made by the white principals furnished no basis whatsoever for any objective rating of their teachers whether within each school or within the system or with new applicants. While the superintendent contended that his decisions were not adversely influenced by the far more detailed and critical report of the Negro principal, he did not hesitate to use the adverse aspects of that report to justify his decisions in his testimony before the court. Thus he employed some Negroes because of a favorable recommendation by the principal, but refused to employ others who had received equally favorable recommendations. Low N.T.E. scores were offered to justify failure to hire some teachers with years of experience although many teachers, both white and Negro, had never been required to take the tests. Seniority was of no help. In the case of one teacher with 39 years experience, her age was cited as a reason for refusal to hire, notwithstanding the fact that nine white teachers with 35 to 41 years of experience were retained. In a number of cases the Negro teachers’ qualifications were compared unfavorably in one aspect or another with those of a new teacher who was hired to fill the vacancy, although no white teacher who desired to remain was required to pass this test. In the case of one teacher the administration made no attempt to show that she was other than a good and competent teacher; the record evidenced no objective reason to support the failure to re-employ her, but the superintendent had simply concluded that three other teachers were better. These and other inconsistencies were represented throughout the entire case.
Finally, the long history of racial discrimination in the community and the failure of the public school system to integrate schools in the past until forced to do so by litigation must be taken into the fullest consideration. Under circumstances such as this where a history of racial discrimination exists, the burden of proof has been thrown upon the party having the power to produce the facts, in this case, the Board of Education.
Significant points
1. The Negro principal’s report clearly reflected the knowledge that the number of Negro teachers was to be drastically reduced; consequently, his teachers were graded comparatively while those of the white principals were used only to eliminate those teachers, who, in the opinion of the principal or the superintendent, fell below a minimum standard. The informal oral reports made by the white principals furnished no basis whatsoever for any objective rating of their teachers either within each school or within the system or with new applicants.
2. While the superintendent contended that his decisions were not adversely influenced by the far more detailed and critical report of the Negro principal, he did not hesitate to use the adverse aspects of that report to justify his decisions in his testimony before the court. Thus, the superintendent employed some Negroes because of a favorable recommendation by the principal but refused to employ others who had received equally favorable recommendations.
3. Low N.T.E. scores were offered to justify failure to hire some teachers with years of experience although many teachers, both white and Negro, had never been required to take the tests. In a number of cases the Negro teacher’s qualifications were compared unfavorably in one aspect of another with those of a new teacher who was hired to fill the vacancy, although no white teacher who desired to remain was required to pass this test.
4. In the case of one teacher, the administration made no attempt to show that she was other than a good and competent teacher; the record evidenced no objective reason to support the failure to re-employ her, but the superintendent had simply concluded that three other teachers were better. These and other administrative inconsistencies were represented throughout the entire case.
5. The Negro teachers were entitled to an order requiring the Board to set up definite objective standards for the employment and retention of teachers and to apply them to all teachers alike in a manner compatible with the requirements of the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Constitution.
6. The long history of racial discrimination in the community and the failure of the public school system to integrate schools in the past until forced to do so by litigation must be taken into the fullest consideration. Under circumstances where a history of racial discrimination exists, the burden of proof has been thrown upon the party having the power to produce the facts, in this case, the board of education.
Revised statute
Source - United States Code, Annotated, Title 42.
1983. Civil action for deprivation of rights, page 201. Every person who, under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage, of any State or Territory, subjects, or causes to be subjected, any citizen of the United States or other person with the jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the party injured in an action at law, suit in equity, or other proper proceeding for redress.
AMENDMENT XIV. - CITIZENSHIP: PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES: DUE PROCESS: EQUAL PROTECTION: APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATION: DISQUALIFICATION OF OFFICERS: PUBLIC DEPT: ENFORCEMENT, pages 288-289.
Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States, nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxes. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may be vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.
Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.
Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
Implications for education
The Negro teachers were entitled to an order requiring the Board to set up definite objective standards for the employment and retention of teachers and to apply them to all teachers alike in a manner compatible with the requirements of the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Constitution. Beyond the racial aspects of this case is the fact that any procedure utilized by the board such as the National Teachers Examination must be universally applied if it is to constitute justification.
Wall v. Stanley County Board of Education, 378 F.2d,
North Carolina (1967)
Statute appropriate to case
Source - United States Code, Annotated, Title 42.
1983. Civil action for deprivation of rights, page 201. Every person who, under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom or usage, of any State or Territory, subjects, or causes to be subjected, any citizen of the United States or other person within the jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the party injured in an action at law, suit in equity, or other proper proceeding for redress.
AMENDMENT XIV. - CITIZENSHIP: PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES: DUE PROCESS: EQUAL PROTECTION: APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATION: DISQUALIFICATION OF OFFICERS: PUBLIC DEPT: ENFORCEMENT, pages 288-289.
Section 1. All person born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of
persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxes. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in congress, or elector of president and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an office of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may be vote of two-thirds of each House remove such disability.
Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.
Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
Overview
A Negro school teacher, who had 13 years’ experience, was recommended for reemployment in a county school system but after a shift in pupil enrollment resulting from a freedom of choice desegregation plan, was not reemployed due to a decrease in allocation of teacher spaces available in Negro school. She was not allowed by the school board to compete for another teaching position on the basis of merit and qualification with other teachers in the district.
Issue
After a shift in pupil enrollment resulting from a freedom of choice desegregation plan, can a Negro teacher with 13 years’ experience, recommended for reemployment in a county school system, be not reemployed due to a decrease in allocation of teacher spaces in Negro schools?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
The Board considered that transfer of Negro students from a Negro school diminished the need for Negro teachers in the Negro school, causing the teacher to lose her job. The premise of such a proposition is that the teacher was not employed as a teacher in the Stanly County School System but was employed as a Negro teacher in a Negro school. It is referred to in the Fourteenth Amendment, which “forbids discrimination on account of race by a public school system with respect to employment of teachers.”
It is firmly established by the court (1) that the fourteenth Amendment forbids the selection, retention of public school teachers on the basis of race; (2) that reduction in the number of students and faculty in a previously all-Negro school will not alone justify the discharge or failure to reemploy Negro teachers in a school system; (3) that teachers displaced from formerly racially homogeneous schools must be judged by definite objective standards with all other teachers in the system for continued employment; and (4) that a teacher wrongfully discharged or denied reemployment in contravention of these principles is, in addition to equitable remedies, entitled to an aware of actual damages.
Significant points
1. The teacher was employed as a Negro teacher in a Negro school. This was wrong and it is referred to in the Fourteenth Amendment, which “forbids discrimination on account of race by a public school system with respect to employment of teachers.”
2. When teachers are displaced from formerly racially homogeneous schools, they must be judged by definite objective standards with all other teachers in the system for continued employment.
3. Reduction in the number of students and faculty in a previously all Negro school will not alone justify the discharge or failure to reemploy Negro teachers in a school system.
Revised statute
Source - United States Code, Annotated, title 42.
1983. Civil action for deprivation of rights, page 201. Every person who, under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage, of any State or Territory, subjects, or causes to be subjected, any citizen of the United States or other person within the jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the party injured in an action at law, suit in equity, or other proper proceeding for redress.
AMENDMENT XIV. - CITIZENSHIP: PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES: DUE PROCESS: EQUAL PROTECTION: APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATION: DISQUALIFICATION OF OFFICERS: PUBLIC DEPT: ENFORCEMENT, pages 288-289.
Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxes. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in congress, or elector of president and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.
Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or
obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.
Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
Implications for education
The teacher was employed as a Negro teacher in a Negro school. This was wrong according to the Fourteenth Amendment. When teachers are displaced from formerly racially homogeneous schools, they must be judged by definite objective standards with all other teachers in the system for continued employment. This case has implications for the utilization of any type of transfer procedure as a mechanism for eliminating certain teachers. In contrasting this case with the earlier Downs v. Board of Education of Hoboken District, the court ruled the general right transfer a teacher rested in the sound discretion of the board and it has the right to dispense with the services of teachers selected from the entire school district as long as the board acted in good faith to effect the financial condition.
Rolfe v. County Board of Education, 391 F.2d 77
Tennessee (1968)
Statute appropriate to case
United States Code, Annotated, Title 42.
1983. Civil action for deprivation of rights, page 201. Every person who, under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage, of any State or Territory, subjects, or causes to be subjected, any citizen of the United States or other person within the jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the party injured in action at law, suit in equity, or other proper proceeding for redress.
AMENDMENT XIV. - CITIZENSHIP: PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES: DUE PROCESS: EQUAL PROTECTION: APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATION: DISQUALIFICATION OF OFFICERS: PUBLIC DEPT: ENFORCEMENT, pages 288-289.
Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxes. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies there. But Congress may by vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.
Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss of emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.
Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
Overview
Both were non-tenure teachers in the county school system assigned to West End High School, which had an all Negro faculty and all Negro student body. Until the school year 1965-1966, the county public schools were operated under a compulsory biracial system. In order to qualify for federal funds, it was contingent upon compliance with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the board of education adopted a plan of desegregation which was submitted to the United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare. In any event, only Negro teachers were employed at West End High School and only white teachers at Central High School. In May, 1965, the superintendent of schools appeared before the teachers at West End high School and told them that the “chances were” that the school would lose some of its teachers as a result of the desegregation plan.
During the first week of the 1965-1966 school year, which commenced about August 23, 1965, there was a significant decrease in pupil enrollment at the all Negro school. Many students transferred to Central and others transferred to other schools. As a result of the decrease in pupil enrollment at the all Negro school, Negro teachers were dismissed.
Issue
Where a school desegregation plan results in decease in pupil enrollment in an all Negro School, can the board terminate the non-tenure teachers at the school without comparing them to other non-tenure teachers within the school system?
Decision
Court decided for the teachers.
Characteristics of the decision
The court pointed out that it was a foregone conclusion that if the desegregation plan was permitted to work there would be a definite decrease in pupil enrollment at the all Negro high school, with a corresponding reduction in the faculty. The superintendent very commendably admitted as much when he appeared before the West End High School teachers in Spring (may), 1965. In determining which teachers in the school system would be terminated, both Negro teachers were entitled to have their qualifications compared with all other non-tenure teachers within the school system.
Significant points
1. In determining which teachers in the school system would be terminated, both Negro teachers were entitled to have their qualifications compared with all other non-tenure teachers within the school system.
Revised statute
Source - United States code, Annotated, Title 42.
1983. Civil action for deprivation of rights, page 201. Every person who, under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage, of any State or Territory, subjects, or causes to be subjected, any citizen of the United States or other person with the jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the party injured in an action at law, suit in equity, or other proper proceeding for redress.
AMENDMENT XIV. - CITIZENSHIP: PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES: DUE PROCESS: EQUAL PROTECTION: APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATION: DISQUALIFICATION OF OFFICERS: PUBLIC DEPT: ENFORCEMENT, pages 288-289.
Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxes. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But congress by vote of two-thirds of each House, may remove such disability.
Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.
Section 5. The congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
Implications for education
In determining which teachers in the school system would be terminated, both Negro teachers were entitled to have their qualifications compared with all other non-tenure teachers with the school system. This case indicates comparison within categories, non-tenured compared to non-tenured which reinforces the rights of tenured over non-tenured. In Seidel v. Board of Education of Ventnor City, the court expressed that in cases of (a) two or more tenure teachers and only one position available, (b) one tenure teacher and several non-tenure teachers to be discharged, the simple answers are: (a) The board must use its discretion in selecting the tenure teacher; and (b) the board must use similar discretion in selecting the non-tenure teacher to discharge. In the Seidel case, there was one position filled by a non-tenure teacher who could be discharged on expiration of the annual contract to make way for the dismissed tenure teacher.
In the earlier Chambers v. Hendersonville city Board of Education and Wall v. Stanly county Board of Education decision, it was found that when cases involve racial discrimination, Negro teachers were entitled to an order requiring the Board to set up definite objective standards for the employment and retention of teachers and to apply them to all teachers alike in a manner compatible with the requirements of the due process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Constitution. In reference to chambers, it was established that any procedures utilized by the board involving the ratings of teachers, such as the National Teachers Examination, must be universally applied if it is to constitute justification.
Fort Sumner Municipal School Board v. Parsons,
485 P.2d 366 New Mexico (1971)
Statutes appropriate to case
Source - New Mexico Statute 1953, Volume 1, Chapters 1-3.
Sec. 6. (State department of public education-State board of education) page 62.
A. There is hereby created a “state department of public education” and a “state board of education.” The state board of education shall determine public school policy and vocational educational policy and shall have control, management and direction of all public schools, pursuant to authority and powers provided by law. The board shall appoint a qualified, experienced educational administrator to be known as the superintendent of public instruction, who shall, subject to the policies established by the board, direct the operation of the state department of public education.
77-8-17. Appeals-State board-Court of appeals, pages 137-138.
C. The state board shall conduct a review proceeding pursuant to this section with sixty (60) days from the date of notice of appeal is filed. At least thirty (30) days prior to the date of a review proceeding, the state board shall give written notice of the time and place of the review proceeding to the person making the appeal and to the local school board from which the person is appealing.
E. The state board shall render a written decision affirming or reversing the decision of the local school board. Within ten (10) days from the date of a review proceeding, the state board shall serve a written copy of its decision on all parties to the appeal. Service of the written copy of the decision shall be in accordance with the law for service of process in civil actions or by certified mail to a party’s address of record.
Overview
The Local Board was faced with a decreased enrollment of students and concomitant decrease in funds. It determined that the school curriculum could be preserved but that a number of classes offered in certain subjects should be reduced. The reduction in classes was principally in areas in which a teacher was certified to teach English, Language Arts, and Social Studies. With the reduction in classes, it was necessary to reduce the faculty. The Local School Board determined the faculty above sixth grade level would be reduced by two. This reduction was reached by the resignation of one teacher and the decision not to re-employ the other.
Although the teacher was not to be re-employed, the Local School Board retained two non-tenured teachers who were the only certified teachers available to teach certain other subjects which were required by law or for the accreditation of the school. As part of their duties, both non-tenured teachers were to teach subjects that the dismissed teacher was qualified to teach. The evidence before the Local School Board showed the subjects assigned to the non-tenured teachers which the dismissed teacher was qualified to teach, amounted to approximately one half a full-time teaching load.
Between the time the Local School Board hearing and the State Board hearing the dismissed teacher became certified to teach additional subjects. The teacher contended the State Board could weigh this new evidence of her recent certification as against the evidence presented at the local School Board hearing.
Issue
When a Local School Board is required for economic reasons and decreased enrollment to reduce teachers, how is new evidence before the State Board of Education to be considered?
Decision
Court decided for the school board.
Characteristics of the decision
The State Board of Education had reversed the Local School Board’s decision not to re-employ the tenured teacher. The State Board of Education and the teacher urged to the court that the State Board’s decision be affirmed because of substantial evidence supporting the State Board’s decision. This contention was a mistake in the nature of the State Board’s proceedings. In this case the State Board’s nature is to review all procedures and regulations followed by the local school board. There was no issue in this case concerning procedures and regulations. Also, the State Board of Education is to determine whether or not there is evidence in the transcript to substantiate the findings of the local school board that cause exists for refusing to re-employ the person. In this case, the State Board of Education reviewed the evidence and unreasonably determined there was no substantial evidence to support the Local Board’s decision. The issue is not whether there is substantial evidence to support the State Board’s decision. Since the State Board reviewed the Local Board’s decision, as provided by law, the issue to the court was whether the State Board’s decision, after such a review, was arbitrary, unreasonable, unlawful or capricious. In this case, the State Board’s action was unreasonable. It decides the appeal because the State Board, by law, is not authorized to reach an independent result. The State Board’s authority is to review the Local Board’s decision as provided in the School code, and on the basis of that review, affirm or reverse the Local Board’s decision. Again, the State Board of Education, by law, was not authorized to reach an independent decision.
Significant points
1. The State Board’s authority is to review the Local Board’s decision as provided in the School code, and on the basis of that review, affirm or reverse the Local Board’s decision. The State Board of Education, by law, was not authorized to reach an independent decision.
Revised statutes
Source - New Mexico Statutes 1953 Annotated, 1 Replacement, Chapters 1-3.
Sec. 6 (State department of public education - State board of education), page 446.
A. There is hereby created a “state department of public education” and a “state board of education.” The state board of education shall determine public school policy and vocational educational policy and shall have control, management and direction of all public schools, pursuant to authority and powers provided by law. The board shall appoint a qualified, experienced educational administrator to be known as the superintendent of public instruction, who shall, subject to the policies established by the board, direct the operation of the state department of public instruction.
Source - New Mexico Statutes Annotated, Replacement Volume II, Part I, 1975 Pocket Supplement, pages 161-162.
D. The de novo hearing shall be held within sixty (60) days from the receipt by the state board of the notice of appeal. At least thirty (30) days prior to the date of the hearing the state board shall give written notice of the date, time and place of the hearing, the name and address of the hearing officer if a hearing officer is to conduct the hearing, and such notice shall be sent to the person making the appeal and to the local school board or the governing authority of the state agency from the decision of which the person is appealing.
I. The state board shall render a written decision affirming or reversing the action of the local school board or the governing authority of the state agency. Such decision shall contain findings of fact and conclusions of law. A written copy of the decision shall be served on all parties to the proceeding within sixty (60) days from the date of the de novo hearing. Service of the written copy of the decision shall be in accordance with the law for service of process in civil actions or by certified mail to the party’s address of record. For the purposes of this section, mailing of the written copy of the decision by certified mail, return receipt requested, shall constitute service after ten (10) days from the date of mailing.
Implications for education
This is a peculiar case in which many factors are involved. The court decision is primarily focused on the State Board’s authority. In this case, the time at which the teacher became qualified to teach other subjects could be a fact, since between the time of the local school board hearing and the State Board hearing, the dismissed teacher became certified to teach additional subjects. The court pointed out that the State Board’s authority is to review the local board’s decision, and on the basis of that to review, affirm or reverse the local board’s decision. In this case, the State Board of Education, by law, was not authorized to reach an independent decision.
In referring to the earlier Flannery v. Jenkins Township School Directors, the court expressed it was the duty of the board to reinstate the dismissed teacher to teach any subject she was certificated to teach. The teacher continued her professional preparation and subsequently became certified to serve in the area of the guidance and was reinstated to serve in that position. In the Fort Sumner decision, the court addressed itself mainly to the State Board’s authority in reviewing the local board’s decision. Based on the Fort Sumner decision, the teacher’s tenure rights would still be in question.
Thayer v. Anacortes School District, 504 P.2d 1130
Washington (1972)
Statute appropriate to case
Source - revised code of Washington, Titles 28 - chapters 28.58. To End, page 150.
28.67.070 Conditions and contracts of employment–Nonrenewal of contracts. No teacher shall be employed except by written order of a majority of the directors of the district at a regular or special meeting thereof, nor unless he is the holder of an effective teacher’s certificate.
The board shall make with each teacher employed by it a written contract, which shall be in conformity with the laws of this state. Every such contract shall be made in duplicate, one copy of which shall be retained by the school district clerk or secretary, and the other shall be delivered to the teacher, after having been approved and registered by the county superintendent.
Every teacher, principal, supervisor, or superintendent holding a a position as such with a school district, hereinafter referred to as “employee,” whose employment contract is not to be renewed by the district for the next ensuing term shall be notified in writing on or before April 15th preceding the commencement of such term of the decision of the board of directors not to renew his employment which notification shall specify sufficient cause or causes for nonrenewal of contract. Such notice shall be serviced upon the employee by certified or registered mail, or to the teacher personally, or by leaving a copy of the notice at the house of his usual abode with some person of suitable age and discretion then resident therein. Every such employee so notified shall, at his or her request made in writing and filed with the clerk or secretary of the board of directors of the district within ten days after receiving such notice, be granted opportunity for hearing before the board of directors of the district, to determine whether or not the facts constitute sufficient cause for nonrenewal of contract. Such board upon receipt of such request shall call the hearing to be held within ten days following the receipt of such request, and shall at least three days prior to the date fixed for the hearing notify the employee in writing of the date, time and place of hearing. The employee may engage such counsel and produce such witnesses as he or she may desire. The board of directors shall, within five days following the conclusion of such hearing, notify the employee in writing of its final decision either to renew or not to renew the employment of the employee for the next ensuing tern. Any decision not to renew such employment contract shall be based solely upon the cause or causes for nonrenewal specified in the notice to the employee and proved and established at the hearing. If such notification and opportunity for hearing is not timely given by the district, the employee entitled thereto shall be conclusively presumed to have been reemployed by the district for the next ensuing term upon contractual terms identical with those which would have prevailed if his employment had actually been renewed by the board of directors for such ensuing term: provided, That in union high school districts the written notification and opportunity for hearing shall be given on or before April 30th preceding the commencement of the next ensuing term.
Overview
The teacher had served as a teacher and librarian for 31 years in the school district. She received a letter April 14, from the district superintendent suggesting that, because of reduced finances, the district had to reduce its force of teachers, and that her teaching contract would not be renewed. She did not demand a hearing with the 10-day period as prescribed by the teacher-tenure statute. Instead, months later, September 16, 1970, she brought legal action against the district seeking a decree renewing her contract and directing payment of her salary, retirement contributions, and other emoluments.
Claiming that the letter of nonrenewal was inadequate and ambiguous on its face and also legally insufficient when considered in connection with her seniority in the district, the teacher said it placed no duty upon her to demand a hearing. The trail court, finding the notice of nonrenewal to be legally sufficient, concluded that the teacher’s failure to demand a statutory hearing within 10 days of the letter’s receipt barred the remedy sought by the teacher. The teacher appealed the decision of the trial court.
Issue
When a teacher with seniority and tenure is nonrenewed because of reduced finances, if she does not request a hearing before the board within the specified time limit as prescribed by law, does she waive whatever rights she might have under the statute to challenge the nonrenewal of her contract?
Decision
Court decided for the teacher.
Characteristics of the decision
Without comment as to seniority, and without any reference to that subject in its finds of fact, the court ruled that the notice if nonrenewal was sufficient, placing the teacher under a statutory duty protesting it within 10 days of its delivery. In essence, the Court ruled that, having failed to demand in writing a hearing before the board within that period as prescribed by law, the teacher waived whatever rights she might have under the statute to challenge the nonreneewal of her teaching contract.
There were criteria used as determining factors in reducing staff, one of which stated “Seniority will be the determining factor when program consideration appear equal.” With seniority as a factor to be considered in the nonrenewal of her teaching contract, the teacher could rightly assume, therefore, from the notice of nonrenewal, that teachers and librarians junior in tenure to her would be laid off first; she had a correlative right to further assume from the notice of nonrenewal that no librarian junior in tenure to her would be retained. Since the notice did not inform her that she was being dropped while junior librarians were being retained, she was not, under RCW 28.67.070, given reasonably adequate notice of the reasons for her nonrenewal, and thus was under no duty to protest. To alert her to the necessity of protesting or requesting a hearing under this statute, the notice of nonrenewal should have stated one way or the other that seniority would be ignored in reducing the teacher staff or library staff because of inadequate funds.
The teacher’s seniority was an integral part of the circumstances upon which the sufficiency should have been tested by the trail court. The court, therefore, in failing to take into consideration what effect the teacher’s seniority would have in deciding the sufficiency of the notice of renewal, omitted a vital element upon which her duty to protest the notice depended.
As a matter of fact, there were other librarians who were still retained, and, of course, other teachers whom she would be senior to, and they had obviously been retained for reasons other than financing.
Significant points
1. With seniority as a factor to be considered in the nonrenewal of her teaching contract, the teacher could rightly assume, therefore, from the notice of nonrenewal, that teachers and librarians junior in tenure to her would be laid off first; she had a correlative right to further assume from the notice of nonrenewal that no librarian junior in tenure to her would be relatined. Since the notice did not inform her that she was being dropped while junior librarians were being retained, she was not, under RCW 28.67.070, given reasonably adequate notice of the reasons for her nonrenewal, and therefore was under no duty to protest.
2. To alert the teacher to the necessity of protesting or requesting a hearing under these statutes, the notice of nonrenewal should have stated one way or the other that seniority would be ignored in reducing the teaching staff or library staff because of inadequate funds.
Revised statute
Source - Revised Code Washington Annotated, Titles 28A to 28B, 1974 Pocket Part, pages 17-18
28A.67.070 Conditions and contracts of employment - Nonrenewal of contracts. No teacher, principal, supervisor, superintendent, or other certificated employee holding a position as such with a school district, hereinafter referred to as “employee,” shall be employed except by written order of a majority of the directors of the district at a regular or special meeting thereof, nor unless he is the holder of an effective teacher’s certificate or other certificate required by law or the state board of education for the position for which the employee is employed.
The board shall make with each employee employed by it a written contract, which shall be in conformity with the laws of this state, and limited to a term of not more than one year Every such contract shall be made in triplicate, one copy to be retained by the school district superintendent or secretary, one copy to be retained, after having been approved and registered, by the intermediate school district superintendent, and one copy to be delivered to the employee thereafter. No contract shall be offered by any board or approved and registered by the intermediate school district superintendent for the employment of any teacher who has previously signed a contract to teach for that same term in another school district of the state of Washington unless such teacher shall have been released from his obligations under such previous contract by the board of directors of any school district to which he was obligated. Any contract signed in violation of this provision shall be void.
Every board of directors determining that there is probable cause or causes that the employment contract of an employee should not be renewed by the district for the next ensuing term shall notify that employee in writing on or before April 15th preceding the commencement of such term of that determination of the board of directors, which notification shall specify the cause or causes for nonrenewal of contract. Such notice shall be serviced upon the employee personally, or by certified or registered mail, or by leaving a copy of the notice at the house or his or her usual abode with some person of suitable age or discretion then resident therein. Every such employee so notified at his or her request made in writing and filed with the chairman or secretary of the board of directors of the district within ten days after receiving such notice, shall be granted opportunity for hearing to determine whether or not the facts constitute sufficient cause of causes for nonrenewal of contract. In the request for hearing, the employee may request either an open or closed hearing. Such board upon receipt of such request, and at least three days prior to the date fixed for the hearing, shall notify the employee in writing of the date, time and place of the hearing. The hearing shall be open or closed as requested by the employee, but if the employee fails to make such a request, the board or its hearing officer may determine whether the hearing shall be open or closed.
The board may employ as a hearing officer any person not currently employed by the district to conduct on its behalf any hearing required by this section, who shall transmit to the board a record of the proceeding together with his recommended findings of fact and conclusions of law, and an advisory recommended decision for the board’s final disposition. The board of its hearing officer may reasonably regulate the conduct of the hearing. The employee may engage such counsel and produce such witnesses as he or she may desire. The board of directors, within ten days following the conclusion of such hearing, shall notify the employee in writing of its final decision either to renew or not to renew the employment of the employee for the next ensuing term. Any decision not to renew such employment contract shall be based solely upon the cause or causes for nonrenewal specified in the notice of probable cause to the employee and established by a preponderance of the evidence at the hating to be sufficient cause or causes for nonrenewal. If any such notification or opportunity for hearing is not timely given by the district, the employee entitled thereto shall be conclusively presumed to have been reemployed by the district for the next ensuing term upon contractual terms identical with those which would have prevailed if his employment had actually been renewed bay the board of directors for such ensuing term.
Implications for education
This case involved a very important procedural matter. Notification must cover more than just fact; it must fully inform so that if grounds for appeal exist, the teacher will be alerted.
Smith v. Board of School Directors of the Harmony Area School District,
328 A.2d 883 Pennsylvania (1974)
Statutes appropriate to case
Source - Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education
11-1124. Causes for suspension, page 528. Any board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for any of the causes hereinafter enumerated: (1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district; (2) Curtailment or alternation of the education program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction; (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts, or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff or professional employees.
11-1125 (b). Suspensions and reinstatements; how made, page 532. In cases in which suspensions are to be made, professional employes shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights, acquired within the school district of current employment, where no differences in rating are found. Seniority rights shall also prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating. In cases where there are substantial differences in rating of those under consideration for suspension, seniority shall be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in the rating cards. Where there is a merger, jointure or union district formed, all professional employes shall retain the seniority rights they had at the time of such merger, jointure or union.
Overview
Two teachers had been suspended due to declining enrollment. At the time of their suspension, two physical education teachers were employed by the district. The teachers claimed they should have been retained because of their seniority and that the two new teachers should not have been added. Furthermore, the school district had failed to keep rating reports on the teachers, and therefore no reasons were given for unsatisfactory teaching.
Issue
If a school district decided to suspend two teachers because of declining enrollment but does not keep rating reports on teachers, does this invalidate the suspensions?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
The teachers claimed that because the school district hired two new additional teachers immediately subsequent to their suspensions, the suspensions were improper. This argument overlooked the fact that the two new additional teachers were hired to teach physical education teachers and were not certified to teach in the suspended teacher’s area of expertise, nor were the suspended teachers certified to teach physical education. The law did not require a school district to retain unneeded teachers in one area of education at the expense of not hiring needed teachers in another area.
As a further opinion, the court expressed the board must first try to realign the teaching staff so that the remaining teachers, after the reduction has been effected, can teach the subjects of those who, because of lesser seniority rights, have been suspended. Applying that rule to this case, the board would be required to try to realign the staff so that the hiring of the two physical education teachers would have been avoided, i.e., have other faculty members teach physical education and let the suspended teachers fill the vacancies created by that change. The teachers that were suspended had not shown that the board did not make such an attempt or that such a realignment could have been accomplished practically had an attempt been made.
The record showed that the school district had not rated each teacher periodically and kept the rating reports on file as required by Section 11-1125(b) which provides in part:
In cases in which suspension are to be made, professional employees shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights, acquired within the school district of current employment, where no differences in rating are found. Seniority rights shall also prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating, In cases where there are substantial differences in rating of those under consideration for suspension, seniority shall be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in the rating cards.
The teachers claimed that the failure to follow the formal procedure of rating each teacher on the rating cards and keeping these rating reports on file makes their suspension unlawful. The superintendent of schools testified that it was the school district’s practice to keep rating reports only when there had been an unsatisfactory rating, and that none of the teachers had even been rated unsatisfactory. The teachers argued, therefore, that since no differences in rating were filed, the suspensions were based entirely on seniority as required in such situations by Section 1125(b). The court expressed that although it did not approve of the school district’s failure to make and keep these rating reports as required by law, it did not find that such failure invalidated the suspension in this case. Had the suspended teachers not been the least senior faculty members under consideration for suspension, then the rating reports may have been necessary to justify the suspension. The suspended teachers next argued, in the context of this case, that they were not the least senior faculty members due to the hiring of the two new physical education teachers. The court was quick to point out that at any time when the keeping of rating reports may have helped them, the two new teachers had not yet been employed.
Significant points
1. The law does not require a school district to retain unneeded teachers in one area of education at the expense of not hiring needed teachers in another area.
2. In staff reduction, the board must first try to realign the teaching staff so that the remaining teachers after the reduction has been effected, can teach the subjects of those who, because of lesser seniority rights, have been suspended.
3. Seniority rights should prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating among teachers.
4. Where there are substantial differences in rating of teachers under consideration for suspension, seniority is to be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in rating reports.
5. A school district’s administrators may keep rating reports on only those teachers who have been unsatisfactory, without keeping rating reports on teachers who have been satisfactory.
6. If senior faculty members are under consideration for termination, rating reports are necessary to justify their termination.
Revised statute
Source - Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education.
11-1124. Causes for suspension, page 528. Any board of school directors may suspend the necessary number of professional employes, for any of the causes hereinafter enumerated: (1) Substantial decrease in pupil enrollment in the school district; (2) Curtailment or alteration of the educational program on recommendation of the superintendent, concurred in by the board of school directors, approved by the Department of Public Instruction, as a result of substantial decline in class or course enrollments or to conform with standards of organization or educational activities required by law or recommended by the Department of Public Instruction: (3) Consolidation of schools, whether within a single district, through a merger of districts, or as a result of joint board agreements, when such consolidation makes it unnecessary to retain the full staff of professional employes.
Source - Purdon’s Penna. Statutes Annotated, Titles 24, Education, Pocket Part.
11-1125(b). Suspension and reinstatement; how made, page 123. In cases in which suspensions are to be made, professional employes shall be retained on the basis of seniority rights, acquired within the school district of current employment, where no differences in rating are found. Seniority rights shall also prevail where there is no substantial difference in rating. In cases where there are substantial differences in rating of those under consideration for suspension, seniority shall be given consideration in accordance with principles and standards of weighting incorporated in the rating cards. Where there is a merger, jointure or union district formed or when new school districts are established as the result of reorganization of school districts pursuant to Article II, subdivision (I) of this act, all professional employes shall retain the seniority rights they had at the time of such merger, jointure, union or reorganization of school districts.
Implications for education
The law does not require a school district to retain unneeded teachers in one area of education at the expense of not hiring needed teachers in another area. This case emphasizes the importance of certification as it related to the grouping of teachers for seniority purposes.
Jordahl v. Independent School District No. 129,
225 N.W.2d 224, Minnesota (1974)
Statue appropriate to case
Source - Minnesota Statutes Annotated 10A 124-143, pages 157-158.
Subd. 3. Termination of contract. Contracts governing the first and second years of a beginning teacher’s first teaching experience in Minnesota are not subject to this subdivision. Thereafter, the teacher’s contract shall remain in full force and effect, except as modified by mutual consent of the board and the teacher, until terminated by a majority roll call vote of the full membership of the board, or by the written resignation of the teacher, before April 1. Provided: before a teacher’s contract is terminated by the board, the board shall notify the teacher in writing and state its reason for the proposed termination. Within ten days after receipt of this notification the teacher may make a written request for a hearing before the board and it shall be granted before final action is taken. Such termination shall take effect at the close of the school year in which the contract is terminated in the manner aforesaid. Such contract may be terminated at any time by mutual consent of the board and the teacher and this section shall not affect the powers of a board to discharge or demote a teacher under and pursuant to other provisions of law.
Overview
At the time of the dismissal of the teacher, he had served for 11 years in the school district. During the 1972-1973 school year he taught a combination of English and social studies in the senior high school. The school board, apparently faced with declining enrollments, passed a resolution directing the superintendent of schools to consider the discontinuance of programs for the purpose of reducing expenditures and better utilizing funds and teaching personnel. The superintendent of schools made recommendations which included the discontinuance of a combination English and social studies position which recommendations were adopted by resolution of the school board. At a board meeting on February 12, 1973, a resolution proposing terminating of the teacher’s contract was adopted and notice of the proposed termination was sent to the teacher. The teacher requested a hearing, which was held before the board on March 13, 1973. On March 23, ten days after the hearing, the board adopted a resolution terminating the contract of the teacher at the end of the school year.
Issue
Can a school board terminate a teacher in order to reduce expenditures for better utilization of funds and teaching personnel?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
The teacher had the least seniority of the senior high school social studies teachers, all of whom were rated of equal competence, and less seniority than other English teachers with the exception of another English teacher. Testimony was elicited with regard to the relative competence of the dismissed teacher and the other English teacher, and it was the opinion of the senior high school principal that the dismissed teacher was the less competent of the two. The court expressed that the action of the school board was not arbitrary or capricious. The board held the matter under advisement for a period of ten days after the hearing before making a final determination. The action of the board was not one to make room for someone else; it was to discontinue one position of part-time Social Studies and English. The court expressed that the school board directed the superintendent of schools to consider the discontinuance of programs for the purpose of reducing expenditures and better utilizing funds and teaching personnel. The part-time assignments in Social Studies and English were assigned to others in the school system for the purpose of reducing expenditures and better utilization of funds and teaching personnel. The court expressed the choice of which of the tenured teachers should be retained is an administrative decision for the school board, and school boards should have broad discretionary powers free from judicial interference in the absence of a finding that their actions were arbitrary and capricious.
Significant points
1. The teacher had the least seniority of the senior high school social studies teachers, all of whom were rated of equal competence, and less seniority than other English teacher with the exception of another English teacher.
2. Testimony was elicited with regard to the relative competence of the dismissed teacher and the other English teacher, and it was the opinion of the principal that the dismissed teacher was the less competent of the two.
3. The board held the matter under advisement for a period of ten days after the hearing before making a final decision.
4. The action of the board was not to make room for someone else; it was to discontinue one position of part-time Social Studies and English.
5. The part-time assignments in Social Studies and English were assigned to others in the school system for the purpose of reducing expenditures and better utilizing of funds and teaching personnel.
6. The court expressed the choice of which of the tenured teachers should be retained is an administrative decision for the school board.
7. The court expressed that school boards should have broad discretionary powers free from judicial interference in the absence of a finding that their actions were arbitrary and capricious.
Revised statute
Source - Minnesota Statutes Annotated, Volume 10A, Sections 123-143, pocket part, 1975-1976, page 62.
Subd. 4. Termination of contract after probationary period. A teacher who has completed his probationary period in any school district, and who has not been discharged or advised of a refusal to renew his contract pursuant to subdivision 3, shall have a continuing contract in such district. Thereafter, the teacher’s contract shall remain in full force and effect, except as modified by mutual consent of the board and the teacher, until terminated by a majority roll call vote of the full membership of the board, upon one of the grounds specified in subdivision 6 or subdivision 6a or 6b, or until the teacher is discharged pursuant to subdivision 8, or by the written resignation of the teacher submitted prior to April 1; provided, however, that if an agreement as to the terms and conditions of employment for the succeeding school year has not been adopted pursuant to the provisions of sections 179.61 to 179.77 prior to March 1, the teacher’s right of resignation shall be extended to the 30th calendar day following the adoption of said contract in compliance with section 179.70, subdivision 2. Such written resignation by the teacher shall be effective as of June 30 if submitted prior to that date or, if submitted thereafter, shall be effective August 15, and the teacher’s right of resignation for the school year then beginning shall cease on August 15. Before a teacher’s contract is terminated by the board, the board shall notify the teacher in writing and state its ground for the proposed termination in reasonable detail together with a statement that the teacher may make a written request for a hearing before the board within 14 days after receipt of such notification. Within 14 days after receipt of this notification the teacher may make a written request for a hearing before the board and it shall be granted before final action is taken. If no hearing is requested within such period, it shall be deemed acquiescence by the teacher to the board’s action. Such termination shall take effect at the close of the school year in which the contract is terminated in the manner aforesaid. Such contract may be terminated at any time by mutual consent of the board and the teacher, and this section shall not affect the powers of a board to suspend, discharge, or demote a teacher under the pursuant to other provisions of law.
Implications for education
This case reaffirms the relative importance of certification as it related to the grouping of professionals for seniority purposes.
Keller v. Independent School District No. 742, 224 N.W.2d 749,
Minnesota (1974)
Statute appropriate to case
Source - Minnesota Statutes Annotated 10A, 124-143, pages 183-184.
Subd. 4. Grounds for discharge or demotion. Causes for the discharge or demotion of a teacher either during or after the probationary period shall be: (1) Immoral character, conduct unbecoming a teacher, or insubordination; (2) Failure without justifiable cause to teach without first securing the written release of the school board having the care, management, or control of the school in which the teacher is employed; (3) Inefficiency in teaching or in the management of a school; (4) Affliction with active tuberculosis or other communicable disease shall be considered as cause for removal or suspension while the teacher is suffering from such disability; or (5) Discontinuance of position or lack of pupils.
Overview
During the 1972-1973 school year, the district received several indications that the use of Title I funds would be severely restricted to specific programs in the future. The 1972-1973 guidelines of the Minnesota Department of Education prohibited the use of Title I funds for state mandated programs that require the expenditure of local funds, which funds then generate special reimbursement funds from the state. On March 22, 1972, the Federal programs administrator of the Minnesota Department of Education sent a memorandum to all local Title I directors and superintendents. The thrust of this memorandum was to reiterate the prohibition of the state guidelines. The superintendent of schools received a further communication from the Title I office indicating that the district must alter its funding pattern of the speech handicap program. On February 15, 1973, the board of education adopted a resolution discontinuing three full-time speech clinician positions. On the same date, the board adopted a resolution to terminate the contract of the teacher. On February 16, 1973, the board notified the teacher of the proposed termination calling her attention to a hearing and the reason for the discontinuance of position was because the Title I funds used to support the speech clinician program were no longer available.
Issue
Can a local school board discontinue a position because Title I funds used to support the program are no longer available?
Decision
Court decided for the board.
Characteristics of the decision
Minnesota Statutes Annotated 125.12 Subdivision 4 provides that a tenured teacher’s contract may be terminated for discontinuance of position. The School District did discontinue the teacher’s position, and did provide notice and hearing as required by law. The court expressed the reasons for such termination, in the absence of bad faith, are not material. The School Board in this case did not act in an arbitrary, oppressive, or unreasonable manner, and the court did not attempt to substitute its judgment for that of the School Board. In reviewing the board’s decision to terminate the teacher’s contract, the court expressed that Minnesota Statute 125.12 was enacted to protect teachers from arbitrary discharge. However, it was not intended to place an unreasonable restriction on the powers which a school board must possess to effectively administer the operation of the public schools.
Significant points
1. The School District did discontinue the teacher’s position, and did provide notice and hearing as required by law.
2. The court expressed the reasons for such termination, in the absence of bad faith, are not material.
3. In reviewing the board’s decision to terminate the teacher’s contract, the court expressed that Minnesota Statute 125.12 was enacted to protect teachers from arbitrary discharge. However, it was not intended to place an unreasonable restriction on the powers which a school board must posses to effectively administer the operation of the public schools.
Revised statute
Source - Minnesota Statutes Annotated, Vol. 10A, 124-143, pages 63-64.
Subd. 6. Grounds for termination. A continuing contract may be terminated, effective at the close of the school year, upon any of the following grounds: (a) Inefficiency; (b) Neglect of duty, or persistent violation of school laws, rules, regulations, or directives; (c) Conduct unbecoming a teacher which materially impairs his educational effectiveness; (d) Other good and sufficient grounds rendering the teacher unfit to perform his duties.
Subd. 6b. Unrequested leave of absence. The school board may place on unrequested leave of absence, without pay or fringe benefits, as many teachers as may be necessary because of discontinuance of position, lack of pupils, financial limitations, or merger of classes caused by consolidation of districts. The unrequested leave shall be effective at the close of the school year.
Implications for education
This case reaffirms the importance of adherence to specific procedural components as prescribed by statute.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Sources for study dealing with the termination of professional employee contracts for reasons of declining enrollment or economic stress in accordance with the due process of law
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Harvard University Chapter of ASCD, Summer 2008
National Impact for Defining the School Counselors’ Role
Desiree A. Skinner
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A & M University
Prairie View, Texas
Academic Advisor
Bryan Independent School District
Bryan, Texas
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Prairie View, Texas
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
College of Education and Professional Studies
Central Washington University
Special Note: Thanks to Dr. Kimberly Grantham Griffith and Dr. William Allan Kritsonis for getting the article published in the United States of America.
ABSTRACT
Unfortunately, school counseling has lacked a consistent identity across states, districts and even schools (American School Counselor Association, 2003). As the role of the school counselor becomes clearer, school guidance and counseling programs will be more comprehensive. This article will address the following areas: the role of the school counselor, perceptions of the school counselors’ role, the role conflict of the school counselor, and models of school counseling programs.
Introduction
The importance of the school counselors’ role being defined is to be able to institutionalize the position in all schools. Defining the school counselors’ role will also eliminate role ambiguity and increase job effectiveness. Campus principals are usually responsible for defining the school counselor’s role. This often leads to school counselors being responsible for testing, scheduling, enrolling new students, and etcetera. Currently school counselors have a position that is multifaceted. School counselors are often expected to act as administrators, teachers, community liaisons, mediators, and mentors. Principals need to be more knowledgeable about the abilities and training of school counselors in order to use these professionals more effectively.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to assist campus principals in providing appropriate support to school counselors in implementing a comprehensive school guidance and counseling program. According to the American School Counseling Association (ASCA), a comprehensive school guidance and counseling program includes four interrelated components: foundation, delivery system, management system, and accountability. These components, when used in a comprehensive school guidance and counseling program, will promote and increase student achievement.
The Role of the School Counselor
Defining the school counselor’s role is imperative. A continued source of concern for the counseling profession is developing appropriate roles for counselors (Kirchner & Setchfield, 2005). Currently, many school counselors are involved in the organization and implementation of state testing and creation of master schedule. School counselors are charged to “implement a comprehensive school counseling program that promotes and enhances student achievement” (ASCA, 2004, ¶1). This comprehensive program is to enable all students’ equal access and opportunity to educational experiences. To promote the school guidance and counseling program, ASCA (2004) has created the following four standards:
1) Foundation. A professional school counselor will create a mission statement for the school guidance and counseling program that maintains the mission of the school and promotes all students’ academic, career, and personal/social development. This foundation will incorporate collaborating with other professionals on the campus and organizations in the community.
2) Delivery. Professional school counselors will provide services to students, parents, school staff, and the community through school guidance curriculum, individual student planning, responsive services, and system support.
3) Management. Processes are used to reflect the duties of the professional school counselor and include: agreements addressing how the school counseling program is organized and what goals will be accomplished; advisory councils to review school counseling program results and to make recommendations; student data to ensure that every student is benefiting from the school guidance and counseling program; action plans defining student competencies and achievement results; professional school counselor’s time of 80% in direct services; and calendars informing and encouraging active participation in the school guidance and counseling program.
4) Accountability. Professional school counselors will demonstrate the effectiveness of the school guidance and counseling program through measurable terms. Data will be used to show how students are benefited because of the school guidance and counseling program by reporting on immediate, intermediate, and long-range results.
Perceptions of the School Counselors’ Role
School counselors are often expected to assist families with community resources, faculty with staff development, coordinate testing, etc. By clearly defining the school counselors’ role, school guidance and counseling programs will be more comprehensive. Perceptions of the school counselors’ role by principals and counselors do not usually coincide, creating a need for congruence. Given that it is common practice for principals to assign tasks to school counselors, their perceptions have a strong impact. “Developing and defining appropriate roles for school counselors continues to be a source of concern for the counseling profession” (Kirchner & Setchfield, 2005, p. 10). Whether or not school counselor roles coincide with state and national models should be the driving force when defining the school counselors’ role. Administrators and counselors agree about duties that are role congruent, but do not agree about those not considered role congruent (Kirchner & Setchfield, 2005). Again, these incongruent roles go back to coordinating state testing and creating master schedule to name a few. These inconsistencies cause conflict about what school counselors should be doing. An effective and collaborative relationship between the school principal and counselor is essential for counselors to fulfill appropriate roles effectively (Chata & Loesch, 2007).
Administrators glean most of their knowledge from their personal experiences with school counselors from when they were in school and as their supervisor. “At most schools, administrators determine the role of the counselor; thus, the counselor’s duties are often incongruent with state and national role statements” (Fitch, Newby, Ballestero, & Marshall, 2001, p. 90). This is critical because administrators supervise school counselors and the execution of the school guidance and counseling program. Campus principals determine the roles and functions that school counselors carry out, as opposed to what the standards indicate school counselors should be doing (Chata & Loesch, 2007). National standards recommend school counselors spend 80% of their time participating in individual counseling with students (ASCA, 2004). Barriers were identified to implementing school guidance and counseling program: “Scheduling, participating in disciplinary functions, and conducting clerical duties absorb much of a school counselor’s time” (Fitch et al, 2001, p. 89).
The Role Conflict of the School Counselor
Role theory describes perceptions of interactions between professionals receiving role expectations and those sending the role expectations. Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, and Snoek (1964) found four major areas that generate role conflict: rigid organizational policies, conflicting messages from various campus groups, counselor disagreement about their roles, and conflict related to leadership and professional development. If these areas generate role conflict on a school campus, principals and counselors will be able to address some of the issues that develop from role conflict due to perceptions. Taking a realistic look at perceptions can aid in making better decisions in regards to the school counselors’ assigned duties and expectations. “Role changes in any profession take considerable time to be enacted in practice” (Walsh, Barrett, & DePaul, 2007, ¶ 2). When counselors are not conflicted by their role it influences the entire school such as “low absenteeism, low job turnover, and high job productivity and effectiveness” (Coll & Rice, 1993, ¶ 21).
There seems to be a lack of professional identity among school counselors. Role expectations vary by professionals, campuses, districts, and states. Role conflict can result in negative consequences that are both personal and professional (Coll & Freeman, 1997). Kahn et al. (1964) identified several consequences of role conflict: intensified internal conflict, increased tension associated with various aspects of the job, reduced satisfaction with the job and its various components, decreased confidence in superiors and organization, and social and psychological withdrawal. These negative consequences are another reason that the school counselors’ role should be clearly outlined.
School guidance and counseling programs need to become more parallel with national and state standards. Without this interconnection school counselors have different views about their roles and how to best use their time and skills (Burnham & Jackson, 2000). What counselors are doing and what the national and state models expect them to do need to ensure implementing successful school guidance and counseling programs. Following the expectations outlined by ASCA is a good start to virtually guarantee a successful school guidance and counseling program.
Models of School Counseling Programs
The American School Counseling Association (ASCA) has collaborated to develop a framework to aid states and their districts in implementing school guidance and counseling program. The ASCA model contains four interrelated components: foundation, delivery system, management systems and accountability. Unfortunately, many situations arise when school counselors are unable to maintain the ASCA model. For example implementing state testing, administering discipline, and covering classes to name a few situations. By following the ASCA guidelines, and reassigning these ancillary duties, frees up time for the school counselor to do their job more efficiently and effectively.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, the ambiguous role of the school counselor can cause a lot of anxiety. Role conflict comes from the lack of knowledge of the principal and is based on the principals’ first-hand experiences. The principals’ knowledge must include national and local standards in order for a comprehensive school guidance and counseling program to be successful. ASCA has developed frameworks for schools to apply in their counseling agenda. The literature stresses the principals’ influence on the counselor’s role and the supervision of the school guidance and counseling program. Therefore, by allowing school counselors to follow national guidelines a comprehensive school guidance and counseling program will be successfully implemented on the school’s campus.
References
American School Counseling Association (2003, February). The ASCA national model:
A framework for school counseling programs. Professional School Counseling, 165-168. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://search.ebscohost.com/
American School Counseling Association (2004). The role of the professional school
counselor. Retrieved July 20, 2007, from http://www.schoolcounselor.org
Burnham, J. J., & Jackson, C. M. (2000). School counselor roles: Discrepancies between
actual practice and existing models. Professional School Counseling, 41-49. Retrieved October 8, 2007, from http://search.ebscohost.com/
Chata, C. C., & Loesch, L. C. (2007). Future school principals’ views of the roles of
professional school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 35-41. Retrieved November 24, 2007, from http://search.ebscohost.com/
Coll, K. M., & Freeman, B. (1997). Role conflict among elementary school counselors:
A national comparison with middle and secondary school counselors. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 251-261. Retrieved July 4, 2007 from http://search.ebscohost.com/
Coll, K. M., & Rice, R. L. (1993). Role conflict among community college counselors.
Community College Review,58-65. Retrieved July 3, 2007. from http://search.ebscohost.com/
Fitch, T., Newby, E., Ballestero, V., & Marshall, J. L. (2001). Counselor preparation:
Future school administrators’ perceptions of the school counselor’s role. [Electronic version]. Counselor Education & Supervision, 41, 89-99.
Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R. P., & Snoek, J. D. (1964). Organizational stress:
Studies in role conflict and ambiguity. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
Kirchner, G. L., & Setchfield, M. S. (2005). School counselors’ and school principals’
perceptions of the school counselor’s role. [Electronic version]. Education, 10-16.
Walsh, M. E., Barrett, J. G., & DePaul, J. (2007). Day-to-day activities of school
counselors: Alignment with new directions in the field and the ASCA national model. Professional School Counseling, 370-378. Retrieved November 24, 2007, from http://search.ebscohost.com/
Applied Educational Research Journal (AERJ)
22 (3) 2009
The Importance of Hiring a Diverse Faculty: International Impact
Crystal J. Collins
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Counselor
Fort Bend Independent School District
Sugarland, Texas
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
Central Washington University
College of Education and Professional Studies
ABSTRACT
In the current educational climate, our schools are increasing in diversity amongst students; however the teachers are remaining the same. Many students are faced with the realization that their teachers “do not look like them” and therefore have a desire for their teachers to be as diverse as the student body. For many years the hiring of teachers with diverse backgrounds has been a concern. This article will examine the benefits of having a diverse faculty in an educational setting. Students receive the greatest benefit when their teachers come from diverse backgrounds.
Our educational system is ever-changing and as the years go by, the struggle to meet the needs of the system is becoming more challenging. With the change in education comes the realization that educational institutions are becoming more culturally diverse. The growth in the racial and ethnic diversity of the student population is steady, but we have not seen similar diversification among the faculty. There should be more initiatives established to address the hiring of diverse faculty. Diversity among our faculty can and should go far beyond the historical contexts of color and ethnic backgrounds. Diversity includes customs, cultural and religious experiences, personal experiences, historical and political knowledge and much more (Williams, 2000). A diverse faculty will allow students to be exposed to a wide array of ideas, cultures, and individuals. In a diverse student population students need to be exposed to teachers who are like them. They need to see people who have an impact on their lives, look like them, sound like them, and have similar life experiences (Jan, 2006).
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to discuss the importance of a diverse faculty; its benefits and its positive impact on students and education. Students receive many benefits when they are educated by faculty with diverse backgrounds. Students have an opportunity to be exposed to educators that are like themselves as well as educators with cultural backgrounds they may not be familiar with and can gain knowledge from their culture. In an attempt to diversify faculty, it is important that educational institutions are aware of laws relative to diversifying faculty, policies and procedures. We must take the necessary measure to recruit and hire faculty with diverse backgrounds
Diversifying the Faculty Has Many Benefits
The United States is no longer a European, Anglo-Saxon America. It is comprised of many different people, from different places that are contributing to the improvement of the United States. This diversity trickles down from the government to our schools and communities. Due to these changing demographics, it is essential that students learn to live in a diverse world (Brown, 1998). Students must be prepared to live in a world that is racially and ethically diverse. “They must respect others, appreciate diversity, and value differences as positive keys to the academic, social, political, and economic stability of this country” (Brown, 1998). As educators, it is important to create productive citizens. Students need to be exposed to different cultures. Students should be given the opportunity to relate to diverse individuals and connect with different walks of life. Students will learn to be more accepting of different races and cultures, thus making them more culturally aware. Diversifying the faculty has many benefits for students, limits discrimination claims, and limits “reverse discrimination” claims.
A diverse faculty benefits students in that it allows positive relationships to be built. Many times when students feel as though they have something in common with their teacher, this builds relationships. It gives students a sense of belonging as well as comfort. “They need a comfortable learning environment and they need role models on campus to show them that positions of knowledge and social and political importance can be achieved by anyone” (Williams, 2000). Students can find security in knowing that there is someone at their school or on their campus that has their best interest in mind, that is looking out for them, and more importantly, someone who understands their culture and the different things about them.
Diversifying the faculty helps the student educationally. Many studies and longstanding research show that a diverse faculty and student body lead to great benefits in education for all students. A survey conducted by the Bernard Hodes Group on behalf of the PhD project, a corporate and academic-led effort to increase minority representation among business professors, revealed that diversity in front of the classroom enhances the educational experience for all. Ninety-three percent of all respondents feel that minority professors positively impact the education of minority students, whereas 84 percent of all respondents feel that minority professors are positively impacting the education of non-minority students. “The survey disclosed that minority professors have significant influence on the education of both minority and non-minority students” (2003). The more diverse the faculty, the greater diversity of course content and readings, curricular and teaching methods, and scholarly ideas presented to students. Faculty of diverse backgrounds brings a broad range of their own experiences to the classroom. The different backgrounds and ideas may improve the total achievement of the school. Overall, the different backgrounds will lead to a more effective school.
Diversifying the Faculty Reduces the Amount of Discrimination Lawsuits
In general, school systems want to stay clear of lawsuits. No educator should feel as though that have been discriminated against and discrimination claims are a big deal. “A homogenous faculty not only fails to represent the diversity of views and experiences crucial to a broad education, but it leaves an institution vulnerable to damaging discrimination lawsuits” (Springer, 2004). Diversifying the faculty reduces the amount of discrimination claims. If educators of different cultural backgrounds are aware that the educational institution openly hires those of diverse cultures, they are more apt to want to work for the institution and least likely to feel discriminated against. An easily observable commitment to diversity by the educational institution and the faculty in both policies and hires provides a strong defense to claims of discrimination. The institution is also less likely to engage in the kind of discrimination that creates legal liability for the institution.
The likelihood of being sued for hiring a diverse faculty is rare. “Fears of ‘reverse discrimination’ claims resulting from efforts to diversify are overrated” (Springer, 2004). Most claims are those filed regarding discrimination against minorities. These claims usually occur when institutions fail to diversify. “Reverse discrimination” claims are a small percentage of complaints. Due to the different laws, the hiring process must be a careful process. When recruiting a diverse faculty, it is important not to “reverse discriminate” and be sure to hire qualified individuals. “The operative work here is qualified.” Teaching standards can not be compromised for the sake of diversity (Williams, 2000).
Institutions Must Be Aware of Laws on Diversifying Faculty
While diversifying faculty is definitely advantageous, institutions must be aware of laws on diversifying faculty. “The law in this area is unsettled.” Many factors must be considered in regards to the law. Factors like whether an institution is public or private, has a history of discrimination, and accepts federal funding all play a role. The Constitution does not permit discrimination on the basis of race or sex. Federal laws require employers to take explicit “affirmative action” to show how they will make their workplace free from discrimination. Therefore, employees have adopted diversification plans to create a more diverse workplace that have tangible proof of their non-discrimination efforts (Springer, 2004).
Civil Rights Act Prohibits Discrimination
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 42 U.S.C. ‘2000e et seq., makes it unlawful for an employer “to fail to refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise to discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such individual’s race, color, religion, sex, or nation origin.” This statue applies to faculty members and other employees of college and universities, private and public (Springer, 2004). The Civil Rights Act also prohibits discrimination based on race and national origin by recipients of federal financial assistance. Since public schools are state funded, they are included in this law. Most colleges and universities accept federal financial aid and other federal money, so this applies to them as well.
14th Amendment to the Constitution
Faculty Diversity Initiatives Should Be Approached Broadly
The 14th Amendment to the Constitution provides that “no State shall make or enforce any law which shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” Under the 14th Amendment, consideration of race or national origin in hiring or promotion decision is subject to “strict scrutiny,” which requires that policies be “narrowly tailored” to achieve a “compelling government interest” (Springer, 2004). So what exactly constitutes “compelling interest?” Compelling interests recognized under the law have included remedying the present effects of past discrimination and the attainment of a diverse student body to further the “robust exchange of ideas” on campus. Based on the argument that a diverse faculty is an important part of the “robust exchange of ideas,” and that an institution, and the faculty who help run it, must be able to decide “for itself on academic grounds, who may teach, what may be taught, how it shall be taught, and who may be admitted to study” (Springer, 2004). These factors must be considered in regards in hiring a diverse faculty. In endorsing diversity as a compelling state interest, the Court does not limit the use of race to remedial arguments, and recognized that other non-remedial arguments might pass strict scrutiny. Faculty diversity initiatives should be approached with a broad definition of diversity (Springer, 2004).
Specific Hiring Plans
One way to incorporate a diverse faculty is to provide incentives and resources for diversity hires. Such specific hiring programs should be carefully tied to any affirmative action plan, mission statement or particular educational need that is the basis for its existence. The program should be clearly written so that there is no room for ambiguity. Specific targets and numerical goals should be avoided. It is also important to final decisions on hiring are based primarily on qualifications for the positions, and not on race or national origin or gender (Springer, 2004). This will help to avoid any type of legal ramifications.
Legal Considerations
When diversifying faculty, there are many good legal approaches that institutions should implement. It is ideal to have a diversity policy in place that discusses the institution’s strong commitment to using “legal means to achieve diversity.” Once policies and programs supporting diversity are in place, these policies then provide the basis for individual hires and the creation of new programs and policies.
Recruitment
Recruitment of diverse faculty requires institutions to publish and distribute vacant positions as widely as possible. This allows for the position to reach all possible potential candidates. Courts have found race conscious recruiting acceptable under all of the different standards. Vacancy announcements can also be sent to faculty members or students at minority-serving institutions (Springer, 2004). The larger the applicant pool, the greater the possibility of attracting a diverse applicant to hire.
A diverse faculty benefits campuses by providing support to students from diverse backgrounds, serving as symbols of interest, creating a sense of comfort for culturally diverse students, broadening the range of what is taught and how it is taught, lending new ideas and collaboration in pedagogies and serving as role models to the students (Antonio, 2003).
Demographic Changes and Challenges
Student population of public school is changing significantly as years pass. “By the year 2020, approximately 39 percent of all school-age children will come from minority groups.” Twenty-five percent of our largest cities have school systems whose current student bodies are more than half minority. Demographic changes in this country will have a tremendous impact on college enrollment in the near future. In California, more than half the students entering college are from ethnic minority groups (Brown, 1998). Due to these changes, it is imperative that students learn to live in a diverse world as well as have leadership that exemplifies diversity. There must be individual there to bring enlightening experiences to the classroom as well as share some commonalities. As possible strategies are viewed to diversify faculty and retain a diverse faculty, we must keep in mind that the faculty and student worlds are not separate. Each one influences the other (Antonio, 2003).
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, although many institutions endorse diversity initiatives, nothing is being done to enforce it. “Teaching and encouraging diversity in the academic community ill not be easy” (Brown, 1998). “Institutions have tried many different approaches to diversifying within the parameters of the law.” However, institutions are faced with a legal tension: specific and open attempts to hire faculty of color are necessary to diversify the faculty, yet the more specifically race based programs are, the more likely they are to draw legal challenge as “reverse” discrimination (Springer, 2004). Many past efforts to diversify have had various successes at surviving legal challenges. In order to have a well-rounded world filled with individuals that accept those that are different from them and embrace those that “look like them” we must be aware of the cultural differences. Through awareness, the differences must be transformed into positive educational future that realizes that the need for a diverse faculty should be at the forefront of our educational system.
References
Antonio, A. (2003). Diverse student bodies, diverse faculties. Academe, 89(6), 14.
Retrieved August 3, 2006 from the Academic Search Premier database.
Brown, C. (1998).Campus diversity: Presidents as leaders. College Student Affairs
Journal. 18, 84-94.
Jan, T. Boston Falls Short on Teacher Diversity; but Recruitment Rises for Minority
Principals. (2006, January 2). Boston Globe, p. A1.
Springer, A.D. (2004). Faculty diversity in a brave new world. Academe, Retrieved
July 24, 2006, from
http://www.aaup.org/publications/Academe/2004/04ja/04jalw.htm
Springer, A.D. (2004). How to diversify faculty: The current legal landscape.
American Association of University Professors, Retrieved July 22, 2006, from
http://www.aaup.org/Legal/info%20outlines/legaa.htm
Survey Reinforces Value of Faculty Diversity in the Classroom. (2003). Black sssues in
higher education, Retrieved July 25, 2006 from the Academic Search Premier database.
Williams, R. (2000). Faculty Diversity: It’s All about Experience. Community College
Week, 13(1), 5. Retrieved July 25, 2006 from the Academic Search Premier
database.
Philosophic Anthropological Linguistics, Oriel College Journal of Cognitive Thinking, 102 (3) 2009
The University of Oxford White Paper Collection
Ayn Rand’s Atlas Shrugged: An Epistemological, Philosophical and Comparative Treatment Based on the Theoretical Framework of the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning by William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Debbie Watkins
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
Central Washington University
College of Education and Professional Studies
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this article is to show how the writings of Ayn Rand can be understood and developed through the work of Dr. William A. Kritsonis utilizing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. In the literary masterpiece of Atlas Shrugged, Ms. Rand brings her philosophical views alive through the narrative of her story and the lives and dramatic events faced by each of her fictional characters. Her views on objectivism, capitalism, and man’s inherent sexuality are only a few of the controversial topics discussed in her book and revealed poignantly through the themes and motifs of her stimulating and challenging novel, Atlas Shrugged.
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The First Realm: Symbolics
The first realm of meaning is symbolics. “These meanings are contained in arbitrary symbolic structures, with socially accepted rules of formation and transformation, created as instruments for the expression and communication of any meaning whatsoever. These symbolic systems in one respect constitute the most fundamental of all the realms of meaning in that they must be employed to express the meanings in each of the other realms” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 11).
Atlas Shrugged is rife with symbolic communication. Themes, symbols, and motifs add intrigue, interest and mystery to the writing style of Ayn Rand and lend credence to her literary expertise and philosophical ideas and beliefs. The symbolism in Atlas Shrugged adds depth and complexity to her overall meaning constructs and analytical observations.
One of the first and most obvious symbols of her novel is found in the title, Atlas Shrugged. Atlas, in Greek mythology, held the burden of the heavens on his shoulder. To John Galt, and the other societal producers, the weight of the world was placed on their shoulders as they bore the responsibilities of producing for a world deplete of reason, strength, and appreciation.
The dollar sign becomes the symbol of a strike of the mind led by John Galt. By each striker symbolically associating himself with the sign of the dollar, the strikers intuitively illustrate their belief in capitalism and the reward of the capitalists. In Atlas Shrugged, there is no shame weighted with the possession of money. Instead, it is seen as just compensation for productivity and creativity.
Another symbol inherent to the understanding of Atlas Shrugged is the bracelet Rearden created using his new metallurgical discovery. The bracelet is symbolic of Rearden’s entire life work and accomplishments. The bracelet is beautiful, but unappreciated by his wife, just as the development of the new metal Rearden has created is seen as a threat to those who do not care for or appreciate ingenuity, creativity, and invention. Despite the resistance that Rearden faced with his new discovery, the metal he conceived and developed is a beautiful representation of the practical beauty that can be found from one’s individual life work and commitment.
Motors were also symbolic throughout the novel Atlas Shrugged. The motor designed by John Galt had the power to harness energy and provide power to the world. Without the motor, the world’s production would come to a halt. It is symbolic of the power of the mind and how producers are needed in the world to power the creative thoughts and abilities of the true thinkers in order for the world to survive and become productively active and successful.
The Second Realm: Empirics
“The second realm empirics, includes the sciences of the physical world, of living things, and of man. These sciences provide factual descriptions, generalizations, and theoretical formulations and explanations that are based upon observation and experimentation in the world of matter, life, mind, and society” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 12).
John Galt: The Physicist
In Atlas Shrugged, “one of the producers, John Galt, a titan among physicists, decides it is time for ‘the Atlases,’ the men who have carried the world on their shoulders to stop supporting [their] destroyers – to shrug” ( Moritz, 1982, p. 234). His science has benefited the looters, those who live off of his own creativity and expertise. In a decision to proliferate a strike of the mind, “he retreats with other ‘producers’ to a secret mountain citadel in Colorado. There they remain until, in their absence, industry and trade grind to a halt and the collectivist social system collapses” (Moritz, 1982, p. 234). With the collapse of the society that once was known, Galt gives a lengthy speech to tell the word that the fight is over. “The road is cleared. We are going back to the world,” says Galt, as the elite band re-emerges and he, raising “his hand over the desolate earth….trace[s] in space the sign of the dollar” (Moritz, 1982, p. 234).
Biology
Biology is the science of life. For those who believe that man is nothing more than just a physical being without a soul or spirit, their conclusions are in-line with Dr. Pritchett, one of the characters in Atlas Shrugged. “Man? What is man? He’s just a collection of chemicals with delusions of grandeur” (Rand, 1999, p. 131). Those who espouse that man is nothing more than a metaphysical creation are less likely to believe in the supremacy of the soul and the virtue of spirituality that requires accountability and surrender to a life goal and pattern higher than one’s own self and being. Dr. Pritchett’s comments continue, “once he [man] realizes that he is of no importance whatever in the vast scheme of the universe, he will realize that no possible significance can be attached to his activities” (Rand, 1999, p. 132).
In Atlas Shrugged, abortion is mentioned as a right of the state. The People’s State of Mexico wants to “raise everybody’s standard of living and provide a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion in the People’s State of Mexico” (Rand, 1999, p. 123). At the first publication of Atlas Shrugged, abortion was illegal in the United States. The debate for a “woman’s right” did not fully ensue in this country until the ruling of Roe vs. Wade in 1973. This is another example of how controversial social issues were ingrained in the writings of Ayn Rand even before the issues reached a national level forum of discussion and debate.
Socialism
Socialism is an “economic system in which government owns some factors of production and has a role in determining what and how goods are produced” (Clayton, 1995, p. 567). In Atlas Shrugged, socialistic ideas began to emerge that threatened the capitalistic way of life. Those who bought into the socialist way of life included those who supported a new government initiative entitled the “Equalization of Opportunity Bill.” This bill’s purpose was to put limits on capitalistic production, therefore limiting creative capitalists and entrepreneurs from becoming too powerful or wealthy.
The “Equalization of Opportunity Bill” also sought to put limits on the output of the creative, literary mind. Balph Eubank, a literary leader of his time, was in favor of the “Equalization of Opportunity Bill”. “Certainly, I approve of it. Our culture has sunk into a bog of materialism. Men have lost all spiritual values in their pursuit of material production and technological trickery...so we ought to place a limit on their material greed” (Rand, 1999, p. 133). Eubank was willing to surrender his creative mind to the state. “It would work very simply,” said Eubank. “There should be a law limiting the sale of any book to ten thousand copies…If people were forbidden to buy a million copies of the same piece of trash, they would be forced to buy better books” (Rand, 1999, p. 134).
In the United States, citizens are encouraged to improve upon inventions, create new horizons, and develop new services and products that will benefit mankind. Without the motive of profit, many of our greatest inventions and accomplishments would likely not have been achieved. Rand is against socialistic societies that take away the rights of the individual for the watered down benefit of the masses who choose not to produce or create to their highest and fullest potential.
Communism
Karl Marx authored The Communist Manifesto in 1848. He divided society into two groups. The first group was the proletariat. These were the people with no means of production who owed their livelihood to the second group in society, the bourgeoisie, better known as the capitalists. His division of society is analogous to the two major groups “at war” in Atlas Shrugged, the looters and the strikers.
The looters were people who did not use their own creativity or power to create wealth. They were totally dependent upon the creative thinkers in the world, which later became known as the “strikers of the mind.” The strikers were those who created, built, and engineered the framework for modern society. In Atlas Shrugged when the “strikers of the mind” left society, society as it was known previously collapsed.
Theoretical communism states that if everyone were equal, “everyone would produce to the best of their abilities, and everyone would consume to the extent of their needs” (Clayton, 1995, p. 476). However, in today’s society, communism has proven itself to be a dismal failure. In a pure Communist state, a man or woman’s career is chosen for that particular individual at a young age. Regardless of their ability or ambition, there is “equality” in pay for all. Educators, doctors, lawyers, garbage men, and street sweepers are all equal. When a person is not challenged according to their own individual talents and creative potential, production will decrease. Without hope of achieving any significance in one’s life work, society itself would be reduced to a mindless, wondering proletariat under a repressive and dictatorial form of government.
When the government owns the means of production, there is no incentive for creativity. Everything is done in the name of progress. The government leadership, which holds power with an iron hand, prohibits success to anyone who wants to succeed or profit outside of the veil of government interventions and legalities.
Capitalism
Capitalism could be considered one of the most fundamental disciplines in the realm of the social sciences. Capitalism is considered a virtuous pursuit by Rand and many of her primary characters in the novel. Atlas Shrugged espouses the virtues and benefits of a pure capitalistic society and seeks to enunciate and pronounce these values succinctly throughout the novel, espousing the virtues of capitalism and the power of the mind.
Paramount to the perfect society John Galt believed would exist when the producers were in charge is the concept of “free trade and free minds” (Rand, 1999, p. 1067). Rand defines capitalism as “a social system based on the recognition of individual rights, including property rights, in which all property is privately owned” (Uyl and Rasmussen, 1986, p. 173).
“One of the unique features of Rand’s defense of capitalism is that she neither considers capitalism a necessary evil (as do many conservatives) nor tries to defend it simply in terms of the benefits it produces, as do many economists” (Uyl and Rasmussen, 1986, p. 173). Rand sees capitalism from a moral perspective that supersedes capitalism for purely monetary reasons and then becomes a mantra for a philosophical way of life that focuses on intelligence, rationality, and reason.
“The moral justification of capitalism does not lie in the altruist claim that it represents the best way to achieve ‘the common good’…The moral justification of capitalism lies in the fact that it is the only system consonant with man’s rational nature, that it protects man’s survival qua man, and that its ruling principle is justice” (Uyl and Rasmussen, 1986, p. 173).
In Atlas Shrugged, John Galt believes that a collective society will include those who are willing to work and enjoy the fruits of their own labors. He predicts the demise of a system led by looters. In its place he sees a society that believes in the individual and the contributions that individuals can make to their world and society. Not willing to let looters into this new world who are not committed to his goals and philosophical bent, John Galt opens the door of invitation and hospitality only to those who would choose to espouse the virtues of an individualistic, capitalistic society.
To those who were willing to commit to a renouncement of their looting mentality, Galt states, “when the looters’ state collapses, deprived of the best of its slaves….We will open the gates of our city to those who deserve to enter, a city of smokestacks, pipe lines, orchards, markets and inviolate homes……With the sign of the dollar as our symbol – the sign of free trade and free minds – we will move to reclaim this country once more from the impotent savages who never discovered its nature, its meaning, its splendor. Those who choose to join us will join us; those who don’t will not have the power to stop us; hordes of savages have been an obstacle to men who carried the banner of the mind” (Rand, 1999, p. 1067).
“The conduct of the market may be greatly facilitated by the use of money, that provides a convenient medium of exchange…From the standpoint of understanding and control, the use of money is of far-reaching importance, for it permits economic activity to be measured mathematically. Because of the money system, qualitative preferences can be quantitatively assessed, and the powerful resources of mathematical computation can be brought to bear on the study and management of economic processes” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 266).
John Galt’s symbol of the dollar was a rallying cry for the producers to produce and to fall in line with the pseudo-religion of wealth and prosperity based on one’s individualistic ability to produce and his or her enjoyment of such activities. For Galt and his followers, this was success and the true essence of life.
To reiterate the value of a thinking society, John Galt speaks to the looters in regards to what the retreat of reason, thought, and creativity had brought to the world through the strikers of the mind. “If you want to know what you lost when I quit and when my strikers deserted your world—stand on any empty stretch of soil in a wilderness unexplored by men and ask yourself what manner of survival you would achieve and how long you would last if you refused to think, with no one around to teach you the motions, or, if you chose to think, how much your mind would be able to discover….ask yourself whether you would be able to discover how to till the soil and grow your food…then decide whether men of ability are exploiters” (Rand, 1999, pp. 1048-1049).
Feminism
To those who were led to believe that a capitalistic society was an evil commodity, Dagny Taggart was a symbol of everything that was wrong with a society based on capitalism and productivity. She was a woman, who for some, had overstepped the bounds of societal acceptability in the fact that she had not chosen to marry or to establish a traditional home, which was such a prevalent mainstay of most homes during the time of the initial writing of Atlas Shrugged. Balph Eubank looked upon Dagny as “a symptom of the illness of our century….Machines have destroyed man’s humanity…There’s an example of it—a woman who runs a railroad, instead of practicing the beautiful craft of the handloom and bearing children” (Rand, 1999, p. 138).
In Rand’s writing, marriage is not a value that is esteemed, as evidenced in the marriage of Hank and Lillian Rearden. Lillian despises her husband and his work. Hank merely tolerates his wife. It is not until he meets Dagny, that he finds someone who will share his love and appreciation for his work and life goals and accomplishments.
Affairs are not considered inappropriate in Rand’s writings. Fidelity is not considered a virtue. There is not a long term, committal approach to marriage and sexual activity. In addition, children were never mentioned in the text of Atlas Shrugged. In Rand’s world, if literature truly reflects life, children would have been a burden and therefore something that she would not have chosen to have or to commit to.
The Third Realm: Esthetics
“The third realm, esthetics, contains the various arts, such as music, the visual arts, the arts of movement, and literature” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 12). By seeing the artistic qualities of a literary work, meaning and understanding can be enhanced and deepened for a more intuitive and firmer grasp of the specific meanings and nuances of a particular work of literary genius and artistic quality.
Art
“Ayn Rand held that art is a “re-creation of reality according to an artist’s metaphysical value judgments. By its nature, therefore, a novel (like a statue or a symphony) does not require or tolerate an explanatory preface; it is a self-contained universe, aloof from commentary, beckoning the reader to enter, perceive, [and] respond” (Rand, 1999, p. ix).
When Rand talks about a self-created universe, she is mirroring her philosophical view of writing. Rand was able to create a reality of her own choosing through her penned imaginations and her creative expressive abilities and expertise. She was able to create images through the written word and convey meanings and philosophical content through her own literary artistic talents and skills.
Music
Richard Halley is Dagny Taggart’s favorite composer. He is a masterful musician with a bent toward writing beautiful concertos and operas. At the age of 24, Halley’s first opera “Phaethon” was performed. He met with wide spread humiliation and professional disfranchisement by the critics when his opera was booed and heckled by patrons of his first musical debut.
On his second debut, years later, he met with the success he had longed for since his youth. However, shortly after receiving a rave review of his musical composition’s performance, Halley disappeared. It was another example of a producer leaving the “world” to go to the “perfect world” of the intellectual elitists who retreated to a distant place which came to be known as John Galt’s gulch, a place where men could be productive using their own talents and gifts, whatever they may be, for their own personal pleasure, development, and reward.
Literature
Atlas Shrugged is a mixture of genres and literary devices that combine a fluid story of romance and love based on Ayn Rand’s most basic philosophical beliefs. “Atlas Shrugged is more myth than novel. Miss Rand’s heroes and heroines are godlike creatures who, in their leviathan strength, resist the wickedness of the pernicious weaklings around them and achieve their ends at will” (Riley, 1975, p. 423).
Reason and rationality were together the basis for the novel Atlas Shrugged. Before ever starting a novel, “Ayn Rand wrote voluminously in her journals about its theme, plot, and characters” (Rand, 1999, ix). In her journal writing for Atlas Shrugged, Rand demonstrated “her mind in action, confident even when groping, purposeful even when stymied, luminously eloquent even though wholly unedited. These journals are also a fascinating record of the step-by-step birth of an immortal work of art” (Rand, 1999, p. ix).
“Ayn Rand’s basic purpose as a novelist was to present not villains or even heroes with errors, but the ideal man—the consistent, the fully integrated, the perfect” (Rand, 1999, p. xii). The perfect man in Atlas Shrugged is John Galt. He is heroic in nature and a “towering figure who moves the world and the novel” (Rand, 1999, p. xii). Galt is truly a man for all seasons and times and is pivotal to the story and philosophical views found in Atlas Shrugged.
Rand relates to each of the characters in the book in different and distinguishing ways and presupposes characteristics for each figure involved in the novel. Ideas personified are”for Dagny-the ideal; for Rearden-the friend, and for Francisco d’Anconia-the aristocrat; to James Taggart-the eternal threat; and to the Professor – his conscience” (Rand, 1999, p. xiii).
Rand’s writings have given impetus to philosophies and objectives that have inspired many to take a new look at different opportunities and options to personal fulfillment and success. Rand herself concedes that she seems “to be both a theoretical philosopher and a fiction writer” (Rand, 1999, xiv). Rand wrote for discovery. “For my purpose, the non-fiction form of abstract knowledge doesn’t interest me; the final, applied form of fiction does. I wonder to what extent I represent a peculiar phenomenon in this respect” (Rand, 1999, xiv). Rand also believed that she was much like her character, John Galt. “He is a combination of an abstract philosopher and a practical inventor; the thinker and the man of action together” (Rand, 1999, xiv).
For Rand, her writing was romantic. In writing, Rand chose to make characters either “black or white” from the context of their commitment to their own moray of values, ethics, and lifestyles. Therefore, characters became a mirrored version of her own reality and of society as she perceived it to be.
The Fourth Realm: Synnoetics
The fourth realm is synnoetics. “Meanings in the synnoetics realms are subjective (and inter-subjective), concrete and existential” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 430). Synnoetics is relational. There are two fundamental concepts within this realm that provide a deeper understanding of man and his interaction with his world and those individuals who become a relational part of that world. The “I-It” relationship is how we respond to inanimate and worldly manifestations and structures. The “I-Thou” relationship is how we interact and re-act to those around us. Sexuality can be classified as an “I-Thou” phenomenon in the form of proper relationships and attributes.
From a Freudian perspective, “the source of instinctual energy (particularly the sexual energy or libido) is the id. The id is regarded as part of the unconscious, an aspect of the personality below the level of the conscious mind” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 413). Relationships between Dagny and those she chose to commit herself to were below the level of the conscious mind. Where reason stopped, passionate relationships began.
In Atlas Shrugged, there are several love interests with the main female character of the novel, Dagny Taggart. These relationships are each viewed from a different perspective based on Dagny’s work and relationship to each man she committed herself to, even if only for a brief period of time.
Lifetime commitments were never a conditional part of Dagny’s intimate relationships. For the most part, her relationships were based first on common interests and goals, then on romantic passion and desire. Her love interests included Hank Rearden, John Galt, and Francisco d’Anconia.
The Fifth Realm: Ethics
Ethics, according to Dr. William A. Kritsonis, is that which “includes moral meanings that express obligation rather than fact, perceptual form, or awareness of relation” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 13). Morality, according to Dr. Kritsonis, is simply that “which reflects inter-subjective understanding. Morality has to do with personal conduct that is based on free, responsible, deliberate decision” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 13).
Rand’s view of morality is exonerated by her impressive portrayal of John Galt’s impassioned views about morality expressed during his long and elaborate discourse on morality and objectivism. “A rational process is a moral process. You may make an error at any step of it, with nothing to protect you but your own severity, or you may try to cheat, to fake the evidence and evade the effort of the quest—but if devotion to truth is the hallmark of morality, then there is no greater, nobler, more heroic form of devotion than the act of a man who assumes the responsibility of thinking” (Rand, 1999, p. 1017).
For John Galt, reason was the moral basis of all life. “My morality, the morality of reason, is contained in a single axiom: existence exists-and in a single choice: to live. To live, man must hold three things as the supreme and ruling value of his life: Reason-Purpose-Self-esteem. These three values imply and require all of man’s virtues, and all his virtues pertain to the relation of existence and consciousness: rationality, independence, integrity, honesty, justice, productiveness, and pride” (Rand, 1999, p. 1018).
Rand does not believe man has a moral responsibility to his or her neighbor. This tenet of Rand’s ethical theory appears at first glance to be harsh and uncaring. John Galt restated Rand’s theory of isolation and moralism and held that such attributes were proper and appropriate in his own world view. “Do not say that my morality is too hard for you to practice and that you fear it as you fear the unknown. You kept sacrificing your virtues to your vices, and the best among men to the worst. This dismal wreckage, which is now your world, is the physical form of the treason you committed to your values, to your friends, to your defenders, to your future, to your country, to yourself” (Rand, 1999, p. 1060).
The question might be raised, “When do the needs of others supersede one’s own needs and desires?” According to Rand in her book, The Virtue of Selfishness, there are times when she believes that it is acceptable to help others. “Any action that a man undertakes for the benefit of those he loves is not a sacrifice if, in the hierarchy of his values, in the total context of the choices open to him, it achieves that which is of greatest personal (and rational) importance to him” (Rand, 1964, p. 51).
Ethical and moral decisions each have their own consequences. Rand also believes that in all ethical decisions, the ultimate choice of what is right or wrong lies with the individual. She believes that “the moral purpose of a man’s life is the achievement of his own happiness” (Rand, 1999, p. 55). Selfishness, therefore, remains a strong foundational principle of Rand’s ethical and moral philosophical basis for her idyllic view of society and life.
The Sixth Realm: Synoptics
Synoptics refers “to meanings that are comprehensively integrative” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 13). Synoptics covers the realms of “history, philosophy, and religion” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 13). Understanding the synoptic realm of meaning in these fields allows a continuity of understanding that helps to develop a deeper meaning and understanding of the specific work studied.
History
Historical parallelisms can be found in the story of Atlas Shrugged and important events in our own country’s history. In 1939, Albert Einstein informed President Franklin D. Roosevelt that the Germans had the makings of an atomic bomb. The first country to develop this method of mass destruction would be at a decisive advantage in the framework of global dominance and power.
Einstein in someway parallels the strikers of the mind when he decides to leave Germany and begin his new work in the United States. Just as John Galt did not want unthinking men to reap the benefits or responsibilities of his own creative genius, Einstein did not want the Germans, who he considered a danger and threat to the known world, to have the power of the atomic bomb.
Unthinking men with this unpredictable form of new power could cause grave destruction and chaos to the known world. Einstein knew this and made the decision to join forces with the United States in order to give his power and creative genius to a country that would be responsible and prudent in its dealing with this new form of power and technology.
Another historical parallel can be noted when the People’s State of Mexico promises a “roast of pork every Sunday” (Rand, 1999, p. 123). This is analogous to the campaign promises of Franklin D. Roosevelt when he advocated that lack and poverty would soon be a thing of the past. He promised a “chicken in every pot” to every American who would believe in and support his bid for the presidency of the United States of America.
Philosophy
“Philosophy provides analytic clarification, evaluation, and synthetic coordination of all the other realms through a reflective conceptual interpretation of all possible kinds of meaning in their distinctiveness and in their interrelationships” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 13). Ayn Rand believed that righteous self-interest superseded all morality and goodness. She “challenged the prevalent philosophies of our time with objectivism, a ‘morality of rational self-interest’ repudiating all forms of altruism, including religion, as ‘collectivist’ traps incompatible with a free society” (Moritz, 1982, p. 331).
When writing Atlas Shrugged, “Ayn Rand had to go beyond ethics: she had to originate a new system of philosophy, identifying the nature of man’s means of knowledge and of the universe he seeks to know” (Hull and Peikoff, 1999, p. 290). Ms. Rand’s philosophical bias lies with her theory of objectivism. Her philosophy of objectivism is mirrored in the pages of the novel Atlas Shrugged. Her philosophy is based essentially on the selfishness and individuality of the person who chooses to take responsibility for his or her actions and be responsible for their own view of personal happiness and success.
“My philosophy in essence,” Miss Rand has said, “is the concept of man as a heroic being with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only guide” (Moritz, 1999, p. 332). Ayn Rand’s philosophy of objectivism states that “reality exists as an objective absolute, reason is man’s only means of perceiving reality, man is an end in himself, and the ideal political-economic system is a laissez-faire capitalism” (Ayn Rand Institute, 1996). John Galt’s speech in Atlas Shrugged reflects Rand’s philosophical bent toward her reasoned stance on objectivism and its value to a coherent and productive society.
Rand’s Objectivist Philosophies
In the novel, Atlas Shrugged, John Galt’s perception of the world around him conceptualizes Ayn Rand’s objectivist’s views and philosophies. Therefore, it is important to see how her actual stated philosophical views are reflected in the fictional writings of Atlas Shrugged. Each axiom can be seen through the eyes of her created, heroic character, John Galt.
Objectivist Axiom #1: “Reality exists as an objective absolute—facts are facts, independent of man's feelings, wishes, hopes or fears” (Ayn Rand Institute, 1996). In Atlas Shrugged, John Galt states, “Reality is that which exists; the unreal does not exist; the unreal is merely that negation of existence which is the content of a human consciousness when it attempts to abandon reason. Truth is the recognition of reality; reason, man’s only means of knowledge, is his only standard of truth” (Rand, 1999, p. 1017).
Objectivist Axiom #2: “Man—every man—is an end in himself, not the means to the ends of others. He must exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself. The pursuit of his own rational self-interest and of his own happiness is the highest moral purpose of his life” Ayn Rand Institute, 1996). Happiness, therefore, as explained through the words of John Galt “is the successful state of life. Happiness is that state of consciousness which proceeds from the achievement of one’s values” (Rand, 1999, p. 1014).
Objectivist Axiom #3: “The ideal political-economic system is laissez-faire capitalism. It is a system where men deal with one another, not as victims and executioners, nor as masters and slaves, but as traders, by free, voluntary exchange to mutual benefit. In a system of full capitalism, there should be (but, historically, has not yet been) a complete separation of state and economics, in the same way and for the same reasons as the separation of state and church” (Ayn Rand Institute, 1996).
John Galt’s perception of the ideal political-economic system saw the ultimate view of man as one who was totally in control of his life and work. He believed that “every man is free to rise as far as he’s able or willing, but it’s only the degree to which he thinks that determines the degree to which he’ll rise” (Rand, 1999, p. 1064). However, Galt holds disdain for those who benefit from the contributions of those who have reached their potential and exist at the top of the intellectual and creative pyramid of intellect and creative knowledge and power, and yet do not produce themselves.
“In proportion to the mental energy he spent, the man who creates a new invention receives but a small percentage of his value in terms of material payment, no matter what fortune he makes, no matter what millions he earns” (Rand, 1999, p. 1066). Therefore, in Galt’s mind, as well as Rand’s, there is a disproportionate reward for those who create and for those who simply partake of the intellectual creativity of others.
The motto for Galt’s objectivist theory is found at the end of his infamous and revealing speech which epitomized his views on society, life, objectivism, and the reasons for his departure from the world, even if only for a short time. “You will win when you are ready to pronounce the oath I have taken at the start of my battle—and for those who wish to know the day of my return, I shall now repeat it to the hearing of the world: “I swear by my life and my love of it, that I will never live for the sake of another man, nor ask another man to live for mine” (Rand, 1999, p. 1069).
Galt’s speech is totally aligned with Rand’s basic philosophy of the nature and purpose of selfishness in one’s personal, as well as corporate life. “Since selfishness is ‘concern with one’s own interests’, the objectivist ethics uses that concept in its exact and purest sense. It is not a concept that one can surrender to man’s enemies, nor to the unthinking misconceptions, distortions, prejudices and fears of the ignorant and the irrational. The attack on selfishness is an attack on man’s self-esteem” (Rand, 1964, p. xi). This attack on one’s self-esteem was not an attack that John Galt chose to let emerge in his own personal life. Therefore, he retreated in order to gain supremacy over his own life, creative thoughts and abilities.
Selfishness to Rand and to Galt was not something to be avoided. Selfishness was to be embraced and celebrated. Rand’s views were that the attack on selfishness was “an attack on man’s self-esteem; to surrender one, is to surrender the other” (Rand, 1964, p. xi). As Galt’s final self-interest led him to retreat from a society he believed was comprised of moochers and looters, he demonstrates fully his philosophical and moral agreement with Rand that the idea and practice of selfishness as a virtue should be lauded and held high in the realms of intellectual honor and esteem.
Galt, although not a philosopher by trade, influenced his generation through his own philosophic thought and commitment to his ideas. His contributions thereby exceeded those that only a scientist could bring forth. “Perhaps the greatest contribution of the analytic philosophers is their personal witness to the importance of meaning and their faith in the possibility of making meanings clear” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 73). Galt contributed, in essence, new meaning and life through his innovative leadership and objective philosophies and intellectual premises and pursuits.
Religion
Ayn Rand was a self-proclaimed atheist. Her “god” was the capitalistic society where each man produced from his own individualism and creativity. Worshiping a god, such as the Christian God, was to Miss Rand a representation of naïveté and a misunderstanding of the essential purpose of life.
In the Christian gospel, the value of the individual is paramount. Whether rich or poor, well-known or hidden from the vastness of society and its existence, Christianity presupposes the value of the individual. God, as Creator, values the individual and provides a way of redemption for his creation to ensure their eternal happiness, reward, and eternal longevity which are ensured to those who believe in Him and trust in His providence and guidance throughout life with the hope of securing a future and destiny in-line with God’s purposes and design.
For Rand, the individual who does not conform to her romantic idealized version of life is potentially unworthy of respect or consideration. This view could have influenced her view of abortion and the rights of the unborn, who at birth are truly “non-producers” and who are totally dependent on someone else’s care, generosity, and commitment To Rand, “an embryo has no rights. Rights do not pertain to a potential, only to an actual being. A child cannot acquire any rights until it is born” (Hull and Peikoff, 1999, p. 337). Rand’s view of abortion is that it is a “moral right which should be left to the sole discretion of the woman involved” (Hull and Peikoff, 1999, p. 337).
It is interesting to note, that in Atlas Shrugged, sexuality is not mentioned as a form of pro-creation, but simply as an act of encounter that does not require continual commitment or a dedication to a relationship that has the ability to transcend time and become an integral party of one’s entire being and ultimate life legacy.
Rand’s ideology is in many ways in direct contrast to Christian values and virtues. Christianity espouses the centrality of a triune God who is benevolent and caring to the population of mankind. In contrast, Rand’s god was materialistic. Rand’s heroic characters were those who lived for themselves. Dagny Taggart’s sexuality was in direct contrast to the Christian teachings of morality and purity. Where Christians are admonished to “die to one’s self”, Rand encourages the “self-life.” However, Rand’s writings do give the astute student of philosophy a chance to compare and contrast the values of the world and therefore choose for oneself their own vision of morality and justice.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, Atlas Shrugged is a novel based on the importance of rationality and man’s own individuality and freedom of choice. There are ten major issues which are discussed in the novel and that lend credence to Rand’s philosophical views which include the purpose of life and man’s destiny and responsibilities for individualized happiness and success. Ten prominent themes outlined in Atlas Shrugged include, but are not exclusive of: (1) Rand’s theory of objectivism (2) capitalism (3) socialism (4) communism (as seen through the division of labor (i.e., the looters and the strikers of the mind) (5) feminism (6) a woman’s right to choose (7) man’s spirituality (8) man’s sexuality (9) art in literature and life and (10) the historical parallels of Atlas Shrugged with actual historical events. By reading Ayn Rand’s Atlas Shrugged, readers can gain a new appreciation of her philosophical and literary contributions to our society and how their applications to everyday life and academic study can enhance one’s search for knowledge utilizing the comprehensive framework of the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning.
References
Clayton, G. (1995). Economics, principles and practices (pp. 476, 567). New York: McGraw Hill.
Hull, G., & Peikoff, L. (1999). The ayn rand reader (pp. 290, 337). New York: Penguin Putnam, Incorporated.
Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). Ways of knowing through the realms of meaning (pp. 11, 12, 73,266,413,430). Houston, Texas: National Forum.
Moritz, C. (1982). Current biography yearbook (pp. 234,331,332). New York:
The H.W. Wilson Company.
Rand, A. (1964). The virtue of selfishness (pp. 51, 55, xi, xii). New York: Penguin Putnam, Incorporated.
Rand, A. (1996). Ayn rand institute for the center on objectivism. Retrieved November 17, 2006, from aynrand.org
Rand, A. (1999). Atlas shrugged (pp. ix, xii, xiii, xiv, 55, 123, 131, 132, 133, 134, 138, 1017, 1018, 1048, 1049, 1060, 1064, 1066, 1067, 1069). New York: Penguin Putnam, Incorporated.
Riley, C. (1975). Contemporary literary criticism (p. 423). Detroit, Michigan: Gale Research Company.
Uyl, D. J. and Rasmussen D. B. (1986). The philosophic thought of Ayn Rand (p. 173). Chicago, Illinois: Illini Books.
Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, Houston, Texas. www.nationalforum.com
Applied Educational Research Journal (AERJ)
22 (3) 2009
Integrating the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning to Improve National Fundraising Objectives
Monica G. Williams
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Associate Vice President for Development
Prairie View A&M University
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
Central Washington University
College of Education and Professional Studies
Ellensburg, Washington
ABSTRACT
Improving academic achievement is at the heart of college and university fund development. It has become increasingly important for fundraisers in educational settings to find innovative means to improve educational opportunities by increasing the institution’s financial resources. The purpose of this article is to discuss the benefits of integrating the six realms of meaning as defined by Dr. William Allan Kritsonis in the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning (2007) to increase private financial support at higher education institutions.
Introduction
Using the six realms of meaning in the fundraising profession can increase private resources for institutions of higher education. Being a successful fundraiser in higher education means employing a wide range of strategies in order to increase the donor pool and continue the giving cycle for current donors. “Fundraisers know that average gift value increases with donor longevity, so the most productive use of professional and volunteer time in fundraising is spent giving donors what they need to stay loyal to the cause” (Burk, 2003, p. 6). Cultivating loyal donors increases the likelihood of building a solid and sustainable donor base that is willing to contribute meaningful dollars over an indefinite time.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to help fundraising professionals increase charitable giving through use of the six realms of meaning as defined by Dr. William Allan Kritsonis (2007) in the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. University advancement professionals and development officers can increase and stabilize institutional resources by using symbolics to improve donor communication; by using empirics to become more knowledgeable about their individual donor preferences; by using esthetics to gain an appreciation for the value of donors’ personal interests; by using synnoetics to cultivate relationships with new donors; by employing ethics to foster a sense of trust between fundraisers and donors; and by using synoptics to increase giving among historical donors.
Using Symbolics in Fundraising
One of many ways to build donor relations and secure the next gift is through the use of symbolics. The use of ordinary language between fundraisers and donors demonstrates existence of a true, personal relationship and creates a forum for open communication. People give money to people, not causes. Donors need to believe that they can communicate on a personal level with development professionals. Oftentimes, donors communicate their wishes through gestures, signs, or symbols, and fundraisers are required to read those signals. “Being conscious of how donors feel when they give makes it easy to respond in kind. A gift given eagerly in the anticipation of achieving something worthwhile should be matched by an equally enthusiastic response from the solicitor or the charity” (Burk, 2003, p. 15).
Donors need to feel connected to the cause. This connection becomes more likely when fundraisers increase communication and recognition practices. Increasing communication means presenting timely information through regular university publications and on-line tools. It means reaching out to donors and having them anticipate a development officer’s next contact. “Everything you do that is read, heard, seen, or attended by even one of your donors is a part of your donor communication inventory, whether you intend it to be or not” (Burk, 2003, p. 113).
A significant component of donor communication is donor recognition or acknowledgement. Thanking donors through written correspondence or with meaningful tokens represents appreciation for gifting. “On a gift-by-gift basis, budgeting communication and recognition relative to gift size seems to make sense, but it is actually the opposite of what we need to do if we want to retain more donors and increase the average value of contributions. We make the mistake of designing and budgeting communication as a post-gift activity instead of what it really is—the investment cost of securing the next gift” (Burk, 2003 p. 111).
Empirics in Fundraising
The ability to secure the next gift from a donor presupposes that fundraisers are empirically savvy. Fundraisers should be factually well-informed about their donors. They must know donor history and have the wherewithal to match donor preferences with unfunded priorities and critical agency needs. Ideally, fundraisers solicit the first gift, acknowledge that gift, prepare to re-solicit in a short but respectable timeframe, solicit the donor again, and continue the cycle accordingly. Knowing what the donor wants and expects will provide a smooth transition into giving and repeat giving.
Donors appreciate feeling as if they have a partnership with the organizations to which they contribute. Universities have “...altered their fundraising methodology to give donors what they really need, and in so doing they have reaped the rewards” (Burk, 2003, p. 33). By adding structure and strategy to higher education fundraising through professional consulting firms, universities have made their claim to a fortune that has long awaited them. Much of what continues to await fundraisers is how to become more creative in cultivation strategies in order to gain more resources in areas that have been intentionally avoided by educational institutions.
Appreciation for Esthetics
Charitable organizations and individual donors have a variety of funding priorities. Accordingly, it is important that fundraisers embrace an appreciation for matching donor preferences with institutional needs. This requires flexibility in fundraising practices. It could be stated that donors largely give in two primary, broad categories—arts and sciences. To this end, being knowledgeable of all institutional programs is critical in fund development. Fundraisers must be appreciative of contributions in esthetics. They must be knowledgeable of the arts, understand the value of art collections, etc. They must know how to handle family members when the institution is the beneficiary of bequests.
Relationship Building Using Synnoetics
Shared beliefs and values often shape an organization’s culture. Organizations conduct business under the presumption that they will be able to sell and deliver a product that is mutually appreciated by the customer. Therefore, customer satisfaction can shape an organization’s culture. In higher education, the concept of synnoetics exists among fundraisers during the processes of donor cultivation and gift stewardship. Convincing donors that an agency operates at their best interest is largely influenced by common philosophies and values.
According to Lance Loren Johnsen in a theoretical study involving conflicts that confront academic fundraisers, “fostering ethical relationships with donors is essential for preserving the integrity of the philanthropic gift economy” (Johnsen, p. 2). Being conscious of how donors feel when they give makes it easy to respond in kind (Burke, 2003, p. 14). A gift given eagerly in the anticipation of achieving something worthwhile should be matched by an equally enthusiastic response from the solicitor or charity. Ultimately, the shared belief or common goal between fundraisers and donors is what creates a continuum of giving.
If a donor does not feel connected to an organization, the likelihood of acquiring a major gift is minimized. Philanthropists rely on their relationships with organizations to influence their giving. The lack of shared beliefs between prospective donors and organizations results in unsatisfied philanthropists. It is incumbent upon the fundraiser to resolve any differences in philosophical underpinnings prior to donor cultivation. Academic fundraisers resolve deliberative conflicts through choices grounded in their responsibilities to persons (Johnsen, p. 115).
Senior fundraising professional and author, Penelope Burke, addresses donor philosophy best by saying, “When a donor sits down to write a check, her heart may be racing, she may be imagining how you will react when you open the envelope, and she is certainly wondering whether her gift will have a positive impact on the work you both cherish” (Burke, p. 15). This statement is the foundation of the fundraising profession. People give money to people, not causes. In translation, philanthropists give careful consideration to making substantial donations, and when cultivated by the right person at the right time, the organization reaps the best harvest.
In the fund development community, stewards often overlook the importance of building relationships. Fundraisers must embrace the philosophy that requires them to appreciate the customer. Donor appreciation embodies the culture of any reputable fundraising organization. It is, therefore, imperative that fundraisers understand, respect, and trust donors.
Ethics in Fundraising
Direct correlation between ethical behavior and fundraising is clear. In fact, the basis for successful fundraising is ethics. Without application of ethical principles, fundraisers would not garner the support necessary to achieve effective results.
Assessing ethics among fundraisers is a fascinating topic. It is almost understood that educational advancement professionals are responsible for the welfare of others (i.e. employees, students, parents, community, and the society at large). Having a responsibility of this magnitude insists that fundraisers have basic core values that represent the highest level of ethical principles.
These development leaders are called upon to make moral decisions at many levels of complexity. The degree to which they make the best decision is how they are publicly evaluated by the donor community. While the values of fundraisers influence the make up their ethical framework, it is incumbent upon them to make decisions that satisfy the vast majority of its constituents. This is probably the single most challenging attribute fundraisers have to adopt. Being flexible enough to please a diverse community requires minimization of personal opinions. A collaboration of values that embodies input from a committed donor community will foster the opportunity for buy-in from all who have a vested interest in increasing resources for institutional advancement.
Donor Attrition through Use of Synoptics
Fundraisers must understand individual societal contributions by employing synoptics. “If a nonprofit organization is going to thrive in the twenty-first century, it must not only recognize and serve diverse cultures but also raise substantial portions of its monies from them” (Newman, 2002, p. 3). Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) have recently embraced the concept of matching donor preferences with institutional funding needs. Approaching donors from this angle has yielded a wealth of resources for HBCUs. Many of these schools have discovered that using students to call alumni produces results. When alumni receive a call from a student pursuing a similar academic discipline, alumni perceive that they are in touch with a beneficiary who has similar beliefs and/or philosophies. For example, an engineering student contacting an alumnus who majored in engineering prompts a thoughtful and proportionate gift and presents the opportunity for the alumnus to reconnect with the institution. Reestablishing the relationship will nearly guarantee support.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, having a universal vision about the importance of philanthropy will help fundraisers achieve the epitome of excellence (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 564). The six realms of meaning as introduced by Dr. William A. Kritsonis present an effective model for fundraising achievement in higher education. The model embraces using symbolics to communicate more effectively; empirics to define and meet donor preferences; esthetics to gain an appreciation for the value of donors’ personal interests; synnoetics to improve personal knowledge and experience through donor contact; ethics to foster a sense of trust between fundraisers and donors; and synoptics to unite donors with a worth cause. Understanding how each realm can work intermittently to establish a donor community will nearly guarantee a continuum of philanthropic generosity.
References
Burk, P. (2003). Donor-centered fundraising. Chicago: Cygnus Applied Research, Incorporated.
Johnsen, L. L. (May, 2005). Understanding deliberative conflicts that confront
academic fund raisers: A grounded theory study. Retrieved June 6, 2006, from
ProQuest Information and Learning Company website: http://www.lib.umi.com/dissertations/search.
Kritsonis, W.A. (2007). Ways of knowing through the realms of meaning. Houston, Texas: National Forum Press.
Newman, D.S. (2002). Opening doors: Pathways to diverse donors. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
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Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, Houston, Texas. www.nationalforum.com
National FORUM of Applied Education Research Journal (AERJ)
22 (3) 2009
The William Allan Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter Model: National Implications for Educational Leadership
Desiree A. Skinner
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Prairie View, Texas
Academic Advisor
Bryan Independent School District
Bryan, Texas
ABSTRACT
Having a model to follow in order to determine, and predict, an educator’s performance may seem unimaginable. Fortunately, there is a model for such a thing. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis developed the Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter Model for evaluating and predicting an employee’s productivity. Determining the level of the three components of the model will gage and predict the individual’s competency. The model is an easy-to-use diagnostic tool that all educational leaders should be familiar with.
Introduction
Highly industrious educators work hard to enable students to be successful. The William Allan Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter Model demonstrates that when educators are effective and productive their technical and human skills are in balance with conceptual skills as the foundation. Kritsonis (2002) posits that technical, human, and conceptual skills are developed and refined through experience.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to explain the William Allan Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter Model. Educators must have technical, human, and conceptual skills in harmony in order to perform at maximum ability. When these skills are out of balance, dysfunction arises and the students will be the first to suffer the consequences.
The William Allan Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter Model
In respect to the Kritsonis model, the components are specific. Technical skills include: being detailed oriented, proficient with technology, capable at problem solving, highly organized, a good planner, and particularly efficient with specifics in regards to the job. Human skills include: the ability to relate well with others, a philanthropic nature, good communication skills, ability to manage people, trustworthy, handle conflict well, and value personal diversity. Conceptual skills include: ability to come up with new ideas, able to see the big picture of issues, capable problem-solver, and able to manipulate situations and people in order to implement new ideas. The ability to implement new ideas is what makes schools better and different; it goes to reason, that is why conceptual skills are the cornerstone of this model.
The best scenario is when an educator is in balance with his technical and human skills. With these two things in balance, conceptual skills are able to develop and become the foundation for peak performance. The balance of all three components cultivates productivity. When technical skills outweigh human skills, it alludes to the individual not being adept at working with people. Not having the skill in working with people is extremely important because education is a people business focusing on children and their families. When human skills outweigh technical skills, the individual is unable to handle the duties specific to the job. Being out of balance is a sign that the educator is substandard and dysfunctional. When the skills of the educator teeter-totter back and forth it causes low production, poor quality of work, and incompetence.
Dr. Kritsonis' Model for Supervisory and Administrative Leadership is a Classic in Administrative Theory
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, the William Allan Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter Model is a useful diagnostic tool. Personnel can utilize the Kritsonis model in making hiring decisions, as well as evaluating current employees. When one of the components is off kilter, this area can be specifically addressed. Working towards equilibrium is a goal for all educators. Being balanced will benefit students and the school as a whole.
Reference
Kritsonis, W. A. (2002). William Kritsonis, PhD on schooling. Mansfield, OH: Book Masters, Incorporated.
Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, National FORUM Journals, Houston, Texas. www.nationalforum.com
National FORUM of Applied Education Research Journal (AERJ)
22 (3) 2009
Always Do What is Right: National Implications for Good Character Counts in Schools: Dr. William Allan Kritsonis is a National Expert
Allena Carter Anderson
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A & M University
Prairie View, Texas
Character Education Educator
Cedar Hill, Texas
ABSTRACT
Good character can sometimes be hard to find, but there must be high expectations for educators to make good decisions, model excellent behavior and to do what is right. In order to accomplish this goal and to create a nurturing learning environment, educators must be held to the highest ethical standards. Based on the William Allan Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter Model, an ethical balancing tool is established to include a framework for developing good character in educators.
Introduction
Character development is not isolated to students in a school, but rather entails the development of good character in the entire school community. Students will do what they see being modeled; therefore it is imperative that schools hire educators with the superior communication skills and mental stableness to exhibit good character. Communication is important because students need to be taught how to get along with others without battling over trivial topics. Mental stableness of educators is the minimum owed to students in order to give them the best role models as possible.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to identify Character Education balancing methods to secure the Anderson Teeter-Totter model. Honesty, Respect, Responsibility and Integrity are virtues that are necessary for every educator to reach success and self-actualization. Four components will be recommended to prepare schools for this transition. Based on extensive research and experience in character education, these finding are developed:
1. Support and acknowledge those who are upholding the highest levels of honesty, respect, responsibility and integrity.
2. Have the courage to terminate those who are not upholding honesty, respect, responsibility, and integrity (the trouble makers).
3. Provide ongoing professional development to promote the development of good character.
4. Always do what is right, even when it cost money, friendship, or even loyalty. Be prepared to take a loss, no one said having good character was easy.
Good character consists of balancing four important humanistic characteristics: honesty, respect, responsibility and integrity. It is imperative that people in all facets of life focus on these characteristics as they are the basis of our character. Character is not how we describe ourselves, but how others interpret our actions.
Anderson Teeter-Totter Model
Based on the William Allan Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter Model
Showing good character can be challenging, because when you interact with people who do not possess these same characteristics, it creates an imbalance in the model. Just as the William Allan Kritsonis Balanced Teeter-Totter model, when the model is not functioning productively, it teeter totters, swings back-and-forth causing frustration, insecurities, and multiple dysfunctions resulting in low-level production, and in some cases competency (Kritsonis, 2002). In the work place, this is what can happen when someone with good character is challenged by someone who lacks these characteristics. People may become frustrated when someone they are working with takes a stand on a character issue in the work place and exposes irregularities.
As one climbs the career ladder, they are faced with making ethical decisions on a daily basis, and there becomes a thin line between doing what is ethically right and doing what is best. Educators are obligated to take the high road and do what is right because students are watching what they are doing and often duplicate the actions being modeled by the adults they are around.
Many times, if a person is being honest and confronts a co-worker and informs them of a behavior that is dishonest, manipulative, or down right wrong, the individual will not warmly accept the criticism, but instead, the person may take their dishonest behavior to a new level and start targeting the individual who initially tried to help. Thus, the teeter-totter is imbalanced and the problem escalates. There must be a system in place to protect those who do what is right. At the same time, there must be an accountability component for those who are displaying poor character.
There must be an accountability component mandating all organizations uphold honesty, respect, responsibility and integrity. If a person cannot be terminated for violating any of these virtues, there on no accountability. Too often, the person who does not sacrifice these virtues is misunderstood as not being a team player, instead of being a person who is considered building the integrity of the organization.
Character can no longer be considered an optional entity of an organization, but has to be a priority and be viewed to be as important as profit. In schools, there is sometimes too much emphasis on test scores and not enough focus on how we teach students to treat people. Test scores are important, but an honor roll student who lies, cheats and steals is not successful. Similarly, the star athlete who bullies peers is not successful and should not be allowed to terrorize students Monday through Thursday and be cheered on Friday night at the big game.
In public education, educators have to be held to the highest character education standards. Some teachers lack some of these characteristics and as a result, students pick up poor character habits from their teachers. Some public education teachers feel irreplaceable and are not willing to rejoin the era of true character education. Dr. Martin Luther Kings, Jr. states, “Intelligence is not enough, education plus character, that is the goal of true education.”
An effective character education program must start with the administration, then the teachers, and ultimately impact the students last. We cannot start teaching character education to students without having prepared teachers and administrators. Sometimes groups like unions can provide unrealistic support of employees who have a lack of good character. Educators sometimes feel like they have a larger than life persona when they feel protected by a group that will provide support if they are innocent or guilty.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, character needs to be placed back on the priority lists of what employers are looking for in employees. Schools and companies no longer have to feel forced to keep employees who lack good character. After providing sufficient professional development in character education, employers must do what is right and support the employees who have the good character. Coincidently, this means having the courage to terminate those who have been given ample opportunity to succeed and who are actually destroying the climate of the organization. Honesty, respect, responsibility and integrity must be the framework in the development of a great school.
References
Kritsonis, W. (2002). William Kritsonis, PhD on schooling. Mansfield, OH:
Bookmasters, Incorporated.
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Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, National FORUM Journals, Houston, Texas. www.nationalforum.com
William Allan Kritsonis Journal of Education, 26 (1) 2009
Employing Siegler’s Overlapping Waves Theory to Gauge
Learning in a Balanced Reading Instruction Framework
Gerald J. Calais, PhD
Burton College of Education
McNeese State University
Lake Charles, Louisiana
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ABSTRACT
Balanced reading instruction proposes an alternative to phonics only or whole language only programs; offers an efficient mixture of instructional approaches; and reconciles an array of learning styles. Although this balanced approach can not be interpreted monolithically, due to the various ways that whole language and phonics can be taught and combined, learning to read fluently functions as its intrinsic goal. Such a goal, moreover, implies that learning evolves through strategies. Central to this article is the assertion that Siegler’s overlapping waves theory and microgenetic analysis can be employed to gauge children’s learning, or acquisition of strategies, within a balanced reading instruction framework. Implications regarding how classroom instructional procedures employing Sielger’s work exert their effects on balanced instruction are discussed.
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Introduction
Over the last several decades, increasing numbers of educators have gradually become disenchanted with single approaches to teaching reading, especially with those approaches reflecting extreme versions of phonics or whole language that claim to be essentially superior to all others. According to Bond and Dykstra (1967), the First-Grade Studies project concluded that various materials and methods enable children to learn how to read and that the most effective path to teaching reading entailed a combination of approaches—not a specific, single approach per se.
This balanced approach, however, can not be interpreted monolithically because of the various ways that whole language and phonics can be taught and combined. For example, Kelly (1997) asserts that a combination of phonics and whole language approaches typically define balanced reading instruction because of children’s need to acquire knowledge in both phonemic awareness and in cueing strategies. Carbo (1996), on the other hand, stresses the role of various learning styles. More specifically, she states that phonics instruction benefits students with analytic and auditory learning styles, while whole language instruction benefits students with learning styles of a visual, tactile, and global nature. Raven (1997) maintains that different approaches are needed for specific stages of reading acquisition (e.g., selective cueing, grapho-phonemic, and automatic). From Honig’s (1996) point of view, balanced instruction entails meshing language, literature, and comprehension with systematic skills instruction explicitly taught. Weaver (1998), however, suggests that we focus not only on reading but also on literacy; this focus is broadly defined as encompassing the integration of language and literacy across both language modes and disciplines, in addition to focusing on skills and strategies associated with reading, writing, and learning in context through the use of texts that are whole and meaningful. Finally, McIntrye and Pressley (1996) assert that cultural and psycholinguistic dimensions undergird balanced instruction’s theoretical base.
The aforementioned researchers’ (Carbo, 1996; Honig, 1996; Kelly (1997); McIntrye & Pressley, 1996; Raven, 1997; Weaver, 1998) interpretations of balanced reading instruction provide persuasive evidence that balanced instruction proposes an alternative to phonics only or whole language only programs; offers an efficient mixture of instructional approaches; and reconciles an array of learning styles. Despite balanced instruction’s various interpretations, learning to read fluently functions as its intrinsic goal. Such a goal, moreover, implies that the learning that occurs during children’s attempts to read fluently does not differ from the learning that occurs during their attempts to perform other tasks (e.g., solving math problems, applying the steps of the scientific method) because learning requires the use of strategies. Consequently, children, out of necessity, discover, acquire, utilize, and modify a variety of strategies while endeavoring to learn how to read successfully. For example, during the phonics component of balanced instruction, children must incorporate certain strategies to enhance their decoding performance (e.g., rhyming, blending, segmenting, minimal contrast, combining strategies [e.g., phonics, structural analysis, and context clues]). During the whole language component of balance instruction, children must also incorporate certain strategies to enhance their comprehension (e.g., activating prior knowledge, using graphic organizers, incorporating newspapers and other sources, studying text structure or text organization [e.g., description, sequence, comparison and contrast, problem solution, cause and effect]).
Purpose of the Article
Central to this article is the assertion that, given the pivotal role of learning (and its concomitant dependence on strategies), Siegler’s overlapping waves theory and microgenetic analysis has much to offer practitioners’ of balanced reading instruction (Siegler, 2000). Accordingly, the role and nature of learning within Siegler’s overlapping waves theory and his use of microgenetic analysis will be discussed. Then the implications of learning derived from Siegler’s work for balanced reading instruction will be examined.
Siegler’s Overlapping Waves Theory
Formerly, children’s learning was developmental psychology’s central topic; however, with the ascension of Piaget’s theory associated with developmental psychology and with the cognitive revolution that occurred in adult experimental psychology, the focus shifted from learning to thinking (Slavin, 2005). Moreover, this new emphasis on studying children’s thinking reflected not only a shift in interest but also an assumption that development and learning embodied essentially different processes. Consequently, studies of children’s learning declined drastically. One central fact, however, cannot be overlooked: performance is critical in adults’ lives, relative to learning; in contrast, learning is critical in children’s lives, relative to performance. Any theory of development, therefore, that diminishes the role of learning in children’s lives is a restricted theory of development (Siegler, 2000).
The significance of children’s learning for a coherent grasp of development has prompted an increasing number of investigators to undertake the challenges involved in studying it forthright. These investigators who approach this task, furthermore, represent a variety of theoretical backgrounds: neo-Piagetian (Fischer & Bidell, 1998), cultural contextualist (Granott, 1993), dynamic systems (van Geert, 1998), and information processing (Munakata, 1998). It should be noted that although none of these aforementioned approaches has focused specifically on children’s learning, each, nonetheless, is allocating more attention to it.
One theory, however, does focus fundamentally on how children learn: Siegler’s (2000) overlapping waves theory or waves metaphor of cognitive development. He specifically created this model of cognitive development to better embrace the idea of cognitive variability because he contends that stage theorists’ staircase metaphor of cognitive development (e.g., Piaget) neglected the extensive occurrence of variability during and between stages of development (Slavin, 2005). Hence, Siegler is interested in the number of strategies that a child might use at any age rather than in which specific strategy a child might use most during which stage. In viewing variability from an evolutionary perspective along Darwinian principles, Siegler does not advocate the abandonment of research compiled from the past; rather, he seeks to better illustrate how children develop. Siegler’s (2000) theory is predicated on three assumptions: (1) when solving a problem, children typically employ several strategies and ways of thinking, rather than merely one; (2) the various strategies and ways of thinking coexist over long intervals, not only during short transition periods; (3) experience manifests changes in children’s relative reliance on current strategies and ways of thinking and initiates more advanced approaches.
According to Siegler (1996), the cognitive variability asserted by his overlapping waves theory seems to exist at all levels of analysis. First, it occurs within and across individuals. Studies focusing on tasks such as arithmetic, serial recall, and spelling revealed that children utilized a minimum of three strategies. Second, the variability also appears within an individual unraveling the same problem encompassing two occasions at close intervals. For example, one third of the children who were given an identical addition problem at two different times in one week applied different strategies (Siegler & McGilly, 1989). Third, cognitive variability even occurs within single trials. During the same trial, children may convey a different strategy in speech and gesture, respectively (Goldin-Meadow, Alibali, & Church, 1993).
Five Dimensions of Learning
Overlapping waves theory distinguishes among five dimensions of learning: acquiring appealing strategies, mapping strategies onto new problems, strengthening strategies for consistent usage within given problem sets where they have begun to be applied, refining choices among optional strategies or alternative forms of a single strategy, and executing appealing strategies increasingly efficiently (Chen & Siegler, 2000).
Acquisition of appealing strategies. Acquiring new strategies constitutes a mandatory first step in strategy development because each strategy in a child’s repertoire must be initiated at some point. Such acquisitions usually occur by relying analogically on better-understood problems, by generating mental models of the situation and speculating about them, by making observations throughout the period of problem solving, and by receiving direct verbal instruction.
Mapping strategies onto new problems. Attempting to map strategies onto new
problems is a formidable task because it entails generalizing them from one context to other contexts in which they are applicable. Generalization, in turn, requires that the problem solver distinguish between relevant and irrelevant facets of the context in which the new strategies were initially acquired. Unfortunately, if strategies are mapped onto novel problems predicated on similarities between cursory features of the original and new contexts, problem solvers might employ the strategies when not applicable, might fail to use them when applicable, or both. On the other hand, grasping the principles of strategy applicability results in successful mapping of the novel approach.
Strengthening strategies for consistent usage. Strengthening recently acquired strategies, both in their original settings and in the settings to which they are mapped, constitutes a third dimension of learning. Given that children think in a variety of ways over extended time and that some of their ways of thinking are more enhanced than others, the caliber of their thinking can advance assuming they rely more on novel, comparatively advanced approaches and decrease their dependency on less advanced ones. Regrettably, both children and adults often do not rely on newly acquired strategies, even when they are significantly more efficient than older alternatives (Siegler, 1995). The new approaches’ limited use is often due to problems in retrieving the novel strategies and problems in suppressing older strategies.
Refining choices. The refinement of choices among optional strategies or alternative forms of a single strategy is the fourth dimension of learning. A child can increasingly concentrate on each strategy from his/her repertoire of strategies on problems deemed most useful for that strategy not only when the set of strategies remains constant but also when each strategy’s overall frequency remains constant. The degree of preschoolers’ and older children’s adaptiveness frequently increases as their experience in the domain increases (Lemaire & Siegler, 1995).
Executing appealing strategies. Enhancing efficient execution of novel strategies is the fifth dimension of learning. Even if no changes occur in the acquired repertoire of strategies, in the number of problems used for mapping strategies onto, in the incidence of any strategy regarding either original or transfer problems, and in the accuracy of strategy choices, children’s precision and quickness can advance considerably with increased practice in the execution of each approach.
Data conforming to Siegler’s overlapping waves model have reflected commonalities in children’s learning across varied tasks: arithmetic, reading, serial recall, spelling, and scientific experimentation. In each domain, children applied multiple strategies at all ages with cognitive variability occurring within and across individuals; moreover, in all of these areas, children’s shift toward more refined approaches increased with age and experience. These same traits also characterize adults’ thinking and learning as demonstrated in such varied domains as sentence-picture verification and spatial reasoning (Chen & Siegler, 2000). These findings regarding both children’s and adults’ learning have also formed the foundation for other models of children’s learning, notably computer simulation models (Shrager & Siegler, 1998) and dynamic systems theories (Smith, Thelen, Titzer, & McLin, 1999; van Geert, 1998), both of which share many assumptions regarding how learning evolves with the overlapping waves model.
The three assumptions underlying overlapping waves theory and its five dimensions of learning, accordingly, reflect the complexities entailed in children’s attempts to learn how to read fluently during decoding and/or comprehension phases. Siegler’s focus on the extensive occurrence of strategy variability during and between stages of development ushers in a new paradigm, or perspective, that is more accurate and efficient than the staircase metaphor of cognitive development at explaining children’s learning during reading, or during any other cognitive task. Hence, we should expect enormous inter- and intra-individual variability in terms of decoding and comprehension strategy development during reading performance (Siegler, 2000).
Microgenetic Analysis
Together, these aforementioned theories converge on a new set of priorities for analyzing children’s learning. Instead of attempting to pinpoint a specific age associated with a child’s development of a given capability, we would analyze the variability of existing strategies as well as the emergence of novel ones. Another priority would require us to examine the effects of age and experience on children’s abilities to readily adjust how they approach the demands of problems and situations. A third priority would require us to analyze the emergence of discoveries as well as their generalization once they have emerged. Fortunately, microgenetic analysis, a new methodological approach for examining children’s learning, can address each of these issues, while supplying much of the underpinning for Siegler’s overlapping waves model (Siegler, 2000).
Predominant research methods intrinsically affect, and are affected by, pivotal questions associated with predominant theories. For example, theories focusing on questions such as “At what point do children grasp a specific math concept?” or “How are the development of knowledge states that enable children to grasp a specific math concept sequenced?” harmonize well with standard cross-sectional and longitudinal methods that typically survey children’s thinking at various ages. In contrast, these two methods are inadequate if “What processes do children employ to learn a specific math concept?” or “What procedures do children utilize to acquire new knowledge about a specific math concept?” are the central theoretical questions because observations of emerging intellectual competence, employing the two aforementioned methods, are spaced too far apart to provide sufficiently detailed feedback about the learning process (Siegler, 2000).
This, on the other hand, is precisely where microgenetic methods are especially suitable for resolving issues pertaining to the learning process. These methods, according to Siegler and Crowley (1991), have three primary features: First, observations encompass the duration of swiftly fluctuating competence from the onset of rapid change to the stable use of target modes of thinking. Second, during this period, the number of observations is extensive, relative to the rate of change. Third, observations are qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed intensively to infer the cognitive processes responsible for the ongoing changes.
The second feature above is especially significant because if children’s learning occurred in a purely straightforward fashion, the need for dense sampling of fluctuating changes would be obviated. Instead, cognitive changes entail both regressions and progressions, peculiar transitional states that are ephemeral but pivotal for changes to occur, and other surprising characteristics. In essence, ascertaining how children learn necessitates that we closely observe them during the learning process.
Recently, microgenetic methods have been employed to analyze an increasing scope of age groups, content domains, and issues: infants’ ability to learn both reaching and locomotor skills (Adolph, 1997), preschoolers’ ability to learn both attentional strategies and number conservation ( Siegler, 1995), elementary schoolers’ ability to learn memory strategies, mathematical principles, analogical reasoning (Alibali, 1999; Chen & Klahr, 1999), and adolescents’ and adults’ ability to learn scientific experimentation skills (Schauble, 1996).
Four Consistent Findings
In spite of the investigators’ diversified theoretical predispositions, tasks’ varying content domains, and children’s varying age span studies, the picture that emerges from microgenetic studies of learning is conspicuously similar. Four consistent findings, in fact, account for much of the microgenetic studies’ strikingly similar discoveries.
Change per se tends to be gradual. In a preponderance of studies of children’s learning, researchers have consistently discovered that change is gradual. Even when improved ways of thinking about a task surface, learners continue to employ older, less efficient ways of thinking about it for a long time after (Kuhn, 1995; Schauble, 1996). Gradual changes in learning are especially likely to occur when a new approach is not significantly advantageous compared to current approaches because early approaches frequently tend to be moderately efficient. However, even when approaches arise that are potentially very advantageous, they may not surface because they cannot be effectively executed (Bjorklund, Miller, Coyle, & Slawinski, 1997). Sometimes, when a novel strategy is significantly more efficient than any previous way of thinking, it occasionally dominates quickly; change, however, generally tends to be gradual (Alibali, 1999).
Discoveries materialize out of both success and failure. A second consistent finding from microgenetic analysis of children’s learning is that children discover new strategies to solve tasks when they have successfully solved a task as well as when they have failed to solve a task (Karmiloff-Smith, 1992; Miller & Aloise-Young, 1996).
Initial variability is correlated with later learning. A third consistent characteristic of microgenetic studies is that children’s initial variability of strategy use is positively correlated with their ensuing rate of learning. Many studies suggest that children’s abilities to develop desirable problem solving strategies that obviate inefficient older ones are contingent upon the density of their initial variability of thinking (Perry & Lewis, 1999; Siegler, 1995). Several specific forms of initial variability of strategy use that positively correlate with subsequent rate of learning have been identified: total number of strategies applied to a group of problems, rate of strategy shifting within one trial, rate of self-correcting and deleting of verbal descriptions of strategies, and rate of using speech and gestures, respectively, when expressing strategies during one trial. Coyle & Bjorklund (1997) remind us, however, that all forms of variability in the use of strategies are not necessarily positively correlated with learning. For example, they found that inter-trial changes in strategy use correlated negatively with percent correct recall.
Conceptual understanding guides discoveries. A fourth characteristic of children’s learning is that the degree to which a domain is conceptually understood constrains the discovery of new strategies (Coyle & Borklund, 1997; Gelman & Galistel, 1978; Schauble, 1996). Although children’s novel strategies do not always successfully solve the problems that evoked them, they frequently function as reasonable attempts, nonetheless. It should be noted that children obviously generate conceptually flawed strategies at times and that two basic reasons account for this: children only partially understand the goals that legitimate domain strategies must satisfy or the situation requires them to produce an answer even though they are not cognizant of any plausible strategy that would work.
As initially stated, the perception that learning and development reflected essentially different processes was largely responsible for shifting the focus away from examining children’s learning. Recent research on children’s learning, however, provides a strong rationale for rethinking this conclusion. According to Kuhn (1995), when contrasting development to learning, research in the 1960s and 1970s conceptualized the latter simplistically and nonrepresentationally. Learning viewed from this perspective bears little relevance today. Modern research has demonstrated that learning processes also share certain qualities once thought to be the exclusive domain of development, i.e, learning processes are as complex, organized, structured, and internally dynamic as development per se. If time appears to have blurred the distinction between development and learning, the reduction of development to “nothing but” learning is not the reason; rather, it is because we now realize that learning and development are fundamentally similar in many respects.
Hence, microgenetic analysis, which supplies much of the underpinning for Siegler’s overlapping waves theory, is a relatively new, significantly effective, and dynamic method for analyzing, assessing, and gauging cognitive change or learning. This technique, consequently, greatly facilitates attempts by practitioners of balanced instruction to study quantitative and qualitative changes in the evolution, modification, adaptation, and acquisition of children’s strategies while engaging in decoding and/or comprehension during reading encounters.
Concluding Remarks
Implications of Siegler’s Work for Balanced Reading Instruction
Learning entails both the ability to comprehend or understand a principle, concept, or task at hand and the ability to remember essential information for future retrieval purposes. In addition, the successful learning of anything changes an individual to a varying degree. For example, successful learning may improve, to a greater or lesser degree, one’s ability to efficiently combine several phonics strategies to decode words or to more competently identify various types of text structure or text organization (Slavin, 2005). Concentrating on children’s learning, consequently, will enable us to understand development more comprehensively and to provide us simultaneously with beneficial educational applications. The fact that numerous children frequently fail to learn well in school is certainly nothing new. Meticulous developmental analyses depicting specifically how children learn and/or fail to learn to read, write, and solve mathematics problems may permit us to better understand the nature of learning difficulties and to potentially enrich current programs for remedying them. In essence, these analyses of learning should especially facilitate our ability to pinpoint how classroom instructional procedures exert their effects, enabling us in the future to design more efficacious instructional approaches for improving children’s decoding at the automaticity level, enhancing their overall comprehension performance, enabling them to write more articulately, and modeling comprehension monitoring techniques for their application. However, for this to occur, these analyses must successfully specify what strategies children employ when responding to instruction. Frequently, various correct and incorrect strategies may be utilized for solving a class of problems. Each set of strategies, moreover, may be variously applied to a range of problems, differ in their success rate of execution, and vary in the conceptual underpinnings essential for grasping their functioning. Fortunately, success relative to comprehending how instructional procedures exert their effects has already begun to materialize. Geary (1994), for example, identified several dimensions that contribute to mathematics disability: restricted previous exposure to numbers, insufficient working memory space for numerical information, and inadequate conceptual grasp of operations and counting associated with arithmetic.
These examples clearly illustrate a pivotal point: the renaissance of children’s learning will not only initiate a more stimulating field of cognitive development but also aid children in the learning process.
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The Real Philadelphia Experiment:
How Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues can
Save a School from Itself
Misti M. Morgan
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A & M University
Prairie View, Texas
Assistant Principal
Houston Independent School District
Houston, Texas
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Prairie View, Texas
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Visiting Lecturer
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus
Central Washington University
College of Educational and Professional Studies
________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
With a decline in public confidence in schools, principals must work to ensure that teachers and students on their campuses strive for continuous self development. A model for the implementation of Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues as a professional development tool for teachers and character education program for students will provide both teacher and student stakeholders with a framework for self examination and self improvement. The school’s long-term commitment to the implementation of the 13 Virtues will communicate a school’s willingness and ability to improve and ultimately increase community support for public school initiatives.
________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
The profession of teaching is under attack. In what has become an all too familiar scene, teachers are arrested and accused of moral turpitude and lewd acts, exposed for a lack of credentials, and charged with the crime of robbing America’s youth of a quality education. Worse yet, top levels of administration have not fared much better. Financial mismanagement, bureaucracy, and declining test scores have contributed to a lack of confidence in some of our nation’s public school districts. In a recent survey conducted by the Phi Delta Kappan to determine the public’s opinion of the state of public school education, the following findings were recorded:
• Only 21% of persons polled classified their child’s school as earning an A or B rating
• Of teachers exiting the profession, 89% of those polled cited lack of respect for the teaching profession as one of their primary reasons for leaving
• A majority of respondents concluded that students in their local schools do not work hard enough during school hours or on homework outside of school
• Perhaps the most significant finding is that 37% of respondents say that the No Child Left Behind Act has made no difference in the performance of schools in the community. Twenty-one percent say the law has hurt schools, and only 26% say it has helped. (Rose & Gallup, 2006, p. 41)
With over 51 million students nationwide enrolled in public schools (The National Center for Education Reform, 2008), the task of educating America’s youth is one which we cannot fail. As a high school principal, it is incumbent upon me to develop a response to the recent negative publicity that education has garnered. As a campus, we will develop a model of continuous improvement based upon the examination and implementation of Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to outline a teacher-centered professional development model for implementation of Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues that would serve as a framework for a student-centered character education program for use with high school students through Adult Advocacy. Critical questions for examination would include:
• How would our faculty utilize the study of the 13 Virtues to inform our practice of teaching and learning?
• Is there a link between implementation of the 13 Virtues (as a character education program) and student performance (academic and social)?
• What relevance does Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues have to modern educational philosophy? (To establish justification for its implementation)
• How would we as a faculty communicate our progress to the public?
Administrative Considerations
Prior to any major implementation or paradigm shift within a school, the principal must undertake a careful analysis of the material that he or she will soon expect a faculty to “buy into”, or embrace. By examining Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues from a philosophical standpoint, an educational litmus test can be applied:
1) How will a study of Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues address our faculty and student needs from an ethical standpoint?
Implementation of the 13 Virtues would encourage morally right living by compelling the subject (teacher or student) to examine their current habits and eschew negative or poor moral conduct.
2) How will a study of Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues address our faculty and student needs from a logical standpoint?
The 13 Virtues are written in a progressive succession, designed to gradually moderate and improve the life of the subject. Further, the 13 Virtues require introspection and reflection, a key to effective thinking and decision making.
3) How will a study of Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues address our faculty and student needs from an epistemological standpoint?
The use of faculty groups throughout the study would permit teachers to not only reflect critically upon their experience with each virtue, but would also expose them to various viewpoints of knowledge and reflection, in turn creating new meanings for each of the participants.
4) How will a study of Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues address our faculty and student needs from a metaphysical standpoint?
The 13 Virtues enable us as a group to explore our very nature and perhaps the purpose that lies behind each of our actions. By delving into each virtue, teachers can examine who they are, why they behave or adopt certain characteristics, and how their metaphysical being can be altered or transformed at will.
5) How will a study of Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues address our faculty and student needs from an axiological standpoint?
As educators, the 13 Virtues represent a return to our values system. A moral slippage has occurred within the profession, and a resurgence of “proper conduct” is needed to restore dignity to the educational craft (Kritsonis, 2002, p. 100).
Building the Case for Change
With any new idea or concept that is introduced to a diverse group of people designed to improve them in some way, skepticism will abound, particularly if the group is the last to realize that change is actually needed. In my professional opinion, educators could be one of the most difficult groups to sway, as constant “innovation” without long-term implementation has left many of us jaded and cynical. The North Wind Theory of Management posits that “the idea of resistance to a particular change can be reduced or avoided by creating a desire for that change” (Hook, 2000, p. 31). As a precursor to the 13 Virtues professional development, teachers would engage in a close examination of education-related current events, with an emphasis on the negative attention public schools have most recently received. Teachers would be asked to reflect on the public perception of their craft, and more specifically what we as a campus could do to enhance our professional image. Further, a parallel would be drawn between the image of our student population and how, in reshaping our image as educators, we can work to inculcate a values system in our students. The introduction of Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues would provide a format for a cycle of improvement, beginning with teacher personal reflection and culminating with a corresponding student character education unit delivered through Adult Advocacy.
Figure 1
Morgan & Kritsonis Model for Implementation of Benjamin Franklin’s 13 Virtues for Professional Development
As teachers develop the capacity for change, the 13 Virtues Professional Development series unfolds into a specific protocol. Dependent upon the size of the faculty, teachers would be divided into “faculty groups” consisting of 3-5 participants using random selection (to encourage new working relationships and divergent thinking). The concept of faculty groups would serve to greater personalize the change experience for teachers, as a full faculty exercise may disengage some teachers. Campus administration would also participate in teacher groups. As principal, I would lead the faculty groups in an examination of each stated virtue by using the following protocol:
• Faculty groups would examine the stated virtue and “share out” with their peers what the virtue means to them (beginning of the week).
• During the week, teachers document their progress with the virtue throughout the process.
• At the close of each week, faculty groups share with their peers on how they each implemented the stated virtue. A reflection journal must be maintained throughout the weekly process.
• As a part of the weekly debriefing, faculty groups develop a character education lesson centered on the (previously acquired) virtue for implementation with the students during Adult Advocacy time. Teachers are encouraged to share personal reflections with students to build trust among teachers and students.
• Administration monitors character education implementation and maintains data to examine potential links between professional development application and student progress.
Long-Term Evidence of Change
At the close of the weekly study of the 13 Virtues, principals must identify a culminating activity or activities to not only validate the work of the teachers and students, but to also establish a sense of permanency for the newly-adopted virtues. The following are a sample of activities that schools can undertake to communicate their commitment to change:
• Creation of a personal project – Advocacy teachers and students would collaborate to create a visual record of learning for campus wide display
• Realignment of campus mission, vision, and goals statement (using the 13 Virtues)
• Incorporation of 13 Virtues into school improvement planning (all future decision making would be aligned to 13 Virtues)
• Additional professional development exploring the 13 Virtues more in-depth
• Data reporting – The link between implementation of the 13 Virtues and student improvement (academic and social) could be documented and supported with evidence
By demonstrating a serious commitment to sustainable improvement, each of these strategies could be shared with the external stakeholders (parents, community members, taxpayers, school district supervisors) to improve support and confidence in public schools.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, the 13 Virtues of Benjamin Franklin possess the potential to improve a campus through self-reflection and purposeful change. Principals must be mindful to lay a foundation for change and maintain the constancy of purpose for the remainder of the school year and beyond. In doing so, schools can create a positive image from within, empowering its key stakeholders (teachers and students) with the critical attributes of self-reflection and change.
References
Rose, L. C., & Gallup, A. M. (2006). The 38th annual Phi Delta Kappa/Gallup Poll of the
public’s attitudes toward the public schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 88(1), 41-56.
Retrieved February 12, 2008, from ProQuest database.
The Center for Education Reform (2008). K-12 facts. Retrieved February 12, 2008,
from The National Center for Education Reform Website: http://www.edreform.com/index.cfm?fuseAction=section&pSectionID=15&cSectionID=97
Kritsonis, W. A. (2002). On schooling. Mansfield, OH: BookMasters, Incorporated.
Hook, H. S. (2000). Model-netics, the lifetime learning tool. Houston, TX: Main Event Management Corporation.
Formatted by Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor, National FORUM Journals, Houston, Texas www.nationalforum.com
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, 26 (1) 2009
Debbie Watkins & William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Ways of Knowning Through the Realms of Meaning: National and International Considerations
ABSTRACT
Human resource management is the organizational function that deals with issues related to people such as compensation, hiring, performance management, organization development, safety, wellness, benefits, employee motivation, communication, administration, and training. In the Watkins/Kritsonis Guide to Human Resource Management the framework for developing the human resource department is categorized and developed within the structure of the principles found in the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. Each area of human resource management is listed, studied, and categorized within the framework and structure of six realms of meaning. These realms of meaning include symbolics, emperics, esthetics, synnoetics, ethics, and synoptics. Each realm of meaning offers a framework to develop human resource policies, philosophies, and procedural guidelines in order to enhance the structure and effectiveness of an educational human resource department. Special note: Thanks to Dr. Kimberly Grantham Griffith for her assistance in getting this article published. See: www.nationalforum.com
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Introduction
“Human resource administration is possibly the most important function in education when it is based on the realization that a school’s success and effectiveness are dependent on those people working within the school, whether they are students or employees” (Brimley & Garfield, p. 374). Therefore, it is incumbent upon educational leaders to develop sound policies in the arena of human resource management that will facilitate the development of human capital and thereby strengthen and invigorate the overall organization and educational community.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to develop a structural foundation for human resource management utilizing the principles and philosophies of Dr. William A. Kritsonis as described in his book, Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. Utilizing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning provides a structural framework for implementing an effective and productive human resource organization. Incorporated within this framework of human resource management is the intuitive response that generating policies, procedures, and philosophies conducive to Dr. Kritsonis’ six realms of meaning will provide a dynamic framework for a successful human resource management organization.
Utilizing the Symbolic Structure in Human Resource Management
The first realm of meaning applicable to the world of human resource management is symbolics. “The realm designated symbolics is characterized by arbitrary symbolic structures exhibiting certain customary rules of construction and interpretation” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 111). Inherent in the realm of symbolics is the art and function of communication. Effective communication is a cornerstone of all effective organizations. Therefore, the ability to communicate in the workplace is essential to all past, present, and future success and productivity.
Within the realm of symbolics, three realms of meaning and interpretation exist. “They are ordinary language, mathematics, and non-discursive symbolic forms” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 111). Ordinary language deals with everyday language common in use with daily speech and writing necessary to accomplish goals and objectives in everyday life.
In the educational world, communication is foundational in providing services and products to the educational community. Educators and those working in the educational field must be superior communicators. Within the symbolic realm of meaning, it is noted that “the objective of using language is communication” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 116). Educational professionals charged with the duties of providing human resources to the educational community must be able to articulate the mission, goals, and vision of an organization to prospective and current employees. This can be accomplished through one-on-one communication, company manuals and resource guides, as well as web-based newsletters and communication guides easily accessible to all future and current employees.
A symbolic foundational structure is fundamental to the success of any public or private organization. In the school setting, the human resources department must exemplify superior communication skills. Creating a workplace conducive to positive and productive communication techniques is a primary function of the human resource department in that all aspects of managing people as resources involves utilizing language as communication.
“Language is a binding force in society. It is a means of establishing human relationships. Through language communities are created and sustained” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 116). The vehicle of language is the catalyst for all venues of work, accomplishments, and other creative endeavors. Language is an instrument for communicating meanings within a common real world, not one simply invented. Symbols must be devised that will be adequate to the needs and purposes of communities in this real world” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 117).
Developing the Educational Workplace Vocabulary
“Ordinary languages are not purely arbitrary creations of human imagination. They are social conventions developed the purpose of effectively sharing life within the world as it actually is and for projecting common activity toward what is possible. Ordinary language presupposes a fund of common understanding about the world and a body of shareable experiences” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 117).
Through the abstractness of a language, specific and targeted communication is possible through such avenues as company newsletters, internet websites, and human resource manuals and journals. “The abstractness of language is the source of its power to express an infinite variety of experiences” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 129). In the workplace, these experiences are in the form of work assignments, procedures, and protocols for job performances. Language can be an effective tool for communicating responsibilities, rules of performance, procedural standards for day to day activities, and communication regarding benefits, salaries and wages.
Utilizing educational trade vocabulary effectively can communicate specific mandates, requirements, laws and regulations to the educational community in a way that is easy to follow and understand. Specific language used in human resource communications must be consistent with the climate, responsibilities, and structure of the educational community. The human resource vernacular is “created in the laboratory of culture in the course of the natural history of particular language communities” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 128). In many organizations, interactions among employees outside of the traditional educational workplace are encouraged. In these instances, “Ordinary language allows humans to communicate on a personal level. Many people like to take a brake from ‘shop talk’ from time to time and become comfortable with associates” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 114).
Empirics and the Human Resource Department
The second realm of meaning is the realm of emperics. Emperics deals with the social sciences, and when applied to human resource management, offers a structural framework to provide guidance and direction in those areas conducive to human resource management and found within the empirical realm of the social science disciplines.
“The social sciences, chief among which are social psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science, are clearly in the domain of the sciences of man” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 245) In the arena of human resource management, knowledge and application of the social sciences is imperative if the organization is going to be strong, vibrant, and effective in its maintaining its true identity and purpose in the realm of human resource management.
The Economics of the Human Resource Department
Education is a business. “Although it is this country’s largest industry, education produces only intangibles in the form of nonmaterial goods or services that are valuable but difficult to measure” (Brimley & Garfield, 2005, p. 5). The economics of education involves salaries and benefits for employees as well as financial programs and plans for the overall operating funds of an educational district and organization. “Financing human resources is an ongoing concern, including areas such as analyzing, economics, political, and social changes; being concerned with productivity and accountability; meeting the needs of a demographically changing clientele; and performing these tasks equitably” (Brimley & Garfield, 2005, p. 374).
Human resource managers must establish standards and guidelines for hiring qualified personnel as a top priority in their organizations. “Countries that make only a minor effort in education usually produce only the material goods necessary for subsistence. The educational system thus becomes a very important result, as well as a determinant, of the social and economic progress of a nation” (Brimley & Garfield, 2005, p. 4). When an employee or future employee is skilled, productivity increases. “Productivity tends to go up when workers specialize in things they can do best and when investments in human capital are made” (Clayton, 1995, p. 27).
Once an employee is hired, an investment in their training and education is needed in order to provide the best scenario for employment productivity and contentment in the workplace. Adam Smith, famous for his work, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, has stated that the overall economy and financial stability of a nation depended upon its workers. “Smith observed that labor becomes more productive as each worker becomes more skilled in a single job” (Clayton, 1995, p. 18). It is therefore incumbent upon the human resource department to provide opportunities for skill enhancement in all areas within the educational community.
In the educational human resource department, economics plays a strategic role in the overall mission and mandates of the department. In the book Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning, the economic empirical realm states “The central fact around which all economic thought and action turns is that human beings have unlimited wants but only limited resources” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 790). In the educational workplace, there are also needs and wants of a department that must be met. Choices must be made on how to best to utilize the current resources at hand in the area of human resources.
To make the most of the potential of the human resources within an organization, on-going educational initiatives and job-related training opportunities are necessary to maximize the potential and productivity of an organization’s human resource department.
Human Resources and the School Budget
Human capital is one of the most precious commodities in the arena of human learning and education. Without people working in the educational framework of society, there would be no impetus for learning, achievement, or educational growth. Teachers, administrators, office workers, and support personnel are all vital commodities in the educational economic system. “Education administrators should allocate funds, facilities, personnel, and information in such a way that the improvement in educational achievement between entering and leaving students is maximized” (Brimley & Garfield, 2005, p. 376).
In the business of education, economic principles are guiding factors in structuring an effective human resource policy. Sound economic policies applied to the educational structure will provide the opportunity to build a sound organization built on firm economic principles and mandates. It is therefore important to know that “the study of economic processes combines the mathematical and mechanistic considerations of the physical sciences, the organismic ideas of the life sciences, and the distinctive human factors of the human sciences. As conventional schemes, economic systems are related to the basic symbolic forms, while as social inventions, they are related to the created forms of the esthetic realm” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 248). A fiscally sound economic policy and procedure protocol will ensure that fiscal matters within the organization are managed effectively and efficiently. “Since the salaries and benefits provided for school personnel require nearly 80 percent of the average school’s current expenditures, it is obvious that the administration of human resources is a very important aspect of public school finance” (Brimley & Garfield, 2005, p. 397).
“Endemic to human resource administration is the fact that all educators are professionals who require certification” (Brimley & Garfield, 2005, p. 380). Teachers and other educational professionals must be paid at the highest possible levels in order to ensure continued dedication to the job and career of teaching, administration, and assigned educational support positions. The field of education deals with professionals who must be trained, educated, and certified at designated professional levels in line with their academic and administrative assignments and duties.
Certification standards are mandated for educational professionals in much the same way as other professions such as doctors or lawyers. However, “the salaries paid in the public sector are controlled by boards of education that are sworn to protect the public treasury; in the private sector, the individual operator or the board of directors of a business is free to pay whatever is required in the competitive complex in which one operates” (Brimley & Garfield, 2005, p.380).
Many skilled teachers are leaving the profession because of sub-standard wages and benefits as compared to the public sector. Human resource managers can help to re-direct this trend by utilizing creative and innovative ways to compensate teachers for their work and service to the educational community. Because the business of a school is to teach, school districts must be concerned about the retention and quality of its educational faculty, staff, and service personnel. In order to retain quality staff and faculty members, school administrators and boards of education have emphasized the importance of developing attractive salary schedules and providing good working conditions for certificated personnel” (Brimley & Garfield, 2005, p. 395).
One way empirically to combat this trend in education is to develop innovative policies on teacher compensation packages that will be more competitive with the private market sector. Compensation packages with creative benefit packages can result in higher teacher retention as many educators rank benefits available as highly important in the areas of teacher retention and job satisfaction.
The Sociological Aspects of the Human Resource Management Team
Within every organization there are social groups that develop either to the benefit or to the detriment of the organization. “A social group is a system of social interaction whose members cooperate toward common goals and recognize certain social norms specifying rules of behavior, rights, and obligations” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 257). A human resource manager must ensure that personnel decisions regarding the educational needs of their community be considered and that only those future employees and applicants be assigned to the organization that will fit in with the culture and values of the other employees already in place as valued members of the educational community.
In the construx of any working organization, there evolves a corporate or community climate within which employees work, communicate and perform explicitly among a pre-disposed group climate and corporate culture. Within this culture, an inner society develops which will welcome new members with similar goals and values and reject those who appear to be different or not of the same mind set as the overall organization.
It is imperative that human resource managers seek to hire those individuals with the same values and construx as those within the same organization. Within the sociological framework of the educational workplace, an educated community of workers will emerge that will determine the overall organizational climate and effectiveness of the organization.
Esthetics and the Workplace
The third realm of meaning to consider in human resource management is the realm of esthetics. Beauty, art, and music can all be important attributes of a productive and dynamic work environment. The esthetics of the workplace environment can enhance employee output, instill creativity, and generate positive employee morale. Research has shown that “physical characteristics such as layout, noise, temperature, lighting, and air quality influence students’ and teachers’ performance” (Myers & Robertson, 2004, p. 6). Human resource managers should take into account the esthetics of the classroom, office space, and technology centers in order to ensure that optimal learning and quality work activities in the school setting can ultimately take place.
Work itself can be considered a true work of art. “Meanings in the arts refer to particular works, for example, individual things that have been brought into being as a consequence of work” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 278). When an employee is allowed to work creatively and freely in an educational environment, productivity can dramatically increase. In the esthetic realm, “esthetic understanding is immediate, referring directly to the object perceived” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 279). When an employee sees that his work has been done to the best of his or her ability, a sense of pride and accomplishment can occur that will benefit not only the individuals involved but the entire organization as a whole.
Esthetics also includes the “arts of movement” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 331). Within this realm, movement can be applied to how an employee or future employee handles him or herself in the work environment. Posture, gait, and movement can display signs of inherent confidence or lack of the same. “The expressive qualities of movement can be analyzed in terms of the qualities and combinations of the various motion factors” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 332).
A well rounded employee must be involved in activities that can enhance their overall well-being and health. In the esthetic realm, “the arts of movement, physical education, and health and recreation activities are all closely interrelated resources for the enrichment of esthetics meaning, both in individual persons and in the life of society” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 333).
Synnoetics and the Human Resource Manager
The fourth realm of meaning that is critical to the operations of a human resource department is a firm understanding of the synnoetic nature of the human resource department and its employees. Synnoetics deals with the understanding of one’s self and others. Because people are the reason for the existence of the human resource department, the synnoetic realm of meaning is crucial to the overall effective management of all human resources in an educational setting.
The human resource manager and director is a skilled administrator who “needs to understand people in their actualities, in their possibilities, and in their idealities” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 29). To facilitate the understanding of the human factor of the personnel department in educational organization, one must realize that the organization that the human resource manager presides over is one that is in many instances fragmented and decentralized from a coherent and cohesive community of workers disinterested in other parts of the organization other than those that affect the lifestyle and working scenario of one’s own occupational assignment and directive. “Many a person pursues his own limited calling with scarcely a thought for his place in the total drama of civilized endeavor” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 5) we call work and human labor. A successful human resource manager will seek to bring together a cohesiveness of the personnel factor of the organization for the betterment of the whole.
In the synnoetic realm of meaning, there are two distinct categories of relationships that directly deal with how workers interaction within a particular organization. The term synnoetics “refers to meanings in which a person has direct insight into other beings or oneself” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 593). Understanding the synnoetic realm of meaning can help to identify personal strengths and weaknesses of individuals within an organization in order to better facilitate that person into the overall structure and formulation of the educational entity and identity of the organization.
For many, purpose in work is a major cornerstone in one’s own sense of personal worth and productivity. In today’s workplace, employees are looking for meaning in their day to day operational work activities. Because so much time is spent in the workplace, finding and meaning and fulfillment is a critical component of one’s self-worth and positive self-identity. For many success in the workplace is critical to their overall well being and general life satisfaction. “The well known psychoanalyst Eric Fromm wrote in Man for Himself , “To die is poignantly bitter, but the idea of having to die without having lived is unbearable” (Wiersbe, 1993, p. 145).
The human resource office is responsible for filling positions in both the social and technical field of expertise. Teachers, social workers, and administrators have direct contact with the public on a daily basis. The “I-‘Thou” relationship exists when people-to-people interactions occur. When a position requires technical expertise, detailed and meticulous paper work, and accountability on forms and procedures, and “I-It” relationship comes into being. Making sure that the person hired is capable of dealing with the “I-It” and/or “I-Thou” categories of their assignments is crucial in ensuring that the right personnel are assigned to areas of expertise contingent upon their skill level and relationship level to the position for which they have been hired. “Knowledge in symbolics, empirics and esthetics requires detachment while synnoetic meaning requires engagement” (Kritsonis, 2007 p. 399).
An important function of the human resource department is to seek to engage individuals to grow and mature not only as employees, but as productive human beings as well. To accomplish this, it is important to help employees realize their strengths and weaknesses in the context of the educational workplace and society. This insight can be realized by giving the employee an opportunity to explore strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities for growth. Encouraging the employee to expand upon their own personal knowledge of how they re-act and interact within an organization is crucial to the overall success of the mission and purpose of an organization.
“Personal knowledge is gained by not only understanding the self, but understanding how others whom one considers significant, sees one as well” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 400). One tool for self-realization is to develop programs within the organization that encourage employees to discover their strengths, talents, weaknesses, and areas needed for improvement.
Understanding the Dynamics of a Synnoetic Environment in the Workplace
A workplace is composed of individuals from diverse backgrounds, cultures, and educational levels of accomplishment. Within the structure of the educational workplace, human resource managers must put together a group of workers that will work efficiently and productively towards the goals of accomplishing a district’s overall goals and mission. To accomplish these goals, human resource managers must hire competent managers and leaders who can help fulfill the districts legal and local mandates for operating successful and compliant schools. Understanding the synnoetics of management style, presentation, and performance can enhance an educational facilities human resource department to be more effective and efficient in the day to day operations and protocol in the administration of the human resource department.
Synnoetic Management Styles
In the synnoetic realm of meaning, there are two distinct categories of relationships that directly correlate with the management styles and directives of a human resource organization. The relationships within this realm are the I-It relation and the I-Thou Relation. “One can regard the objects of nature as objects to be used and consumed, the I-It relation, or as being in themselves, to be respected and loved, the I-Thou Relation” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 795). Two management styles that have emerged over the last few decades are the Theory X and the Theory Y styles of management operations. Theory X is conducive to the “I-It” relationship in the workplace. Theory Y exhibits the characteristics of the “I-Thou” relationships.
Theory X takes the position that the average person detests going to work, cannot be trusted and must be watched every step of the way. In the day-to-day world of “Average Joe”, the employee so described will resist change, show no motivation for the work at hand, and will be self-centered and not care about the organizational goals of the team.
The characteristics of a Theory X viewpoint are that “people have an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it whenever possible, people must be coerced and controlled to work, people prefer to be directed, and people want security above all else” (Clark, 2006).
In contrast, the Theory Y philosophy addresses the issue of human motivation in a totally different manner. It is the belief of the Theory Y Manager that people want to do a good job. According to Theory Y management theories, “work is as natural as play and rest; people will exercise self direction if they are given the opportunity” (Clark, 2006). Creativity and spontaneity will be seen more in the work place when workers are trusted and encouraged to do a good job in their employment. A Theory Y manager believes that he can instruct his employees on how to do a good job or finish a work related project and that the employees will be responsive to the initiated trust bestowed upon them by the manager.
In the London newspaper, “Financial Times”, author Lucy Kelley writes about the importance of motivational theory and how it affects our daily life. Using McGregor’s theories as the basis for her article, Ms. Kellay states that a person’s motivation is not simplistically related to either a pictorial Theory X manager or a highly charismatic Theory Y manager. Instead, she states that “the truth, of course, lies between the two extremes” (Kellay, 2005).
Many see Theory X as the negative model for behavior, while others see Theory Y as the model to emulate in our offices and workplaces. As many look at the obvious benefits of Theory Y management, it is often said that “empowered employees are productive employees. If this is the case, why then are not all management structures Theory Y” (Witzel, 2005).
In all work place situations, there are times when simple motivational strategies for employees are not enough. If an employee is not well trained and confident in his or her position, then that employee will be unmotivated to complete his or her given task (Theory X). However, when that employee is empowered through knowledge and training, work becomes a joy. The employee wants to work because work gives purpose and contentment to life.
Ethics in the Workplace
The fifth realm of meaning relevant to human resource management is in the realm of ethics. Ethics presupposes a standard of conduct that is conducive to the overall good of the organization and the individual. “The essence of ethical meanings, or of moral knowledge, is right deliberate action, that is what a person ought voluntarily to do” (Kritsonis, 2007, p.796). Ethics is therefore a critical component within the educational workplace and human resource management policy. An employee should be committed to the organization in which he or she works in order to bring forth the goals and objectives of that organization to fruition. Morality and ethics in this realm assume that workers within the organization will” exemplify universal principles of obligation” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 437).
We assume that those applying for a position within our schools are honest, upright, and willing to work for the betterment of the organization. One way to determine if one’s ethics are within the bounds a particular position in an organization is to require before hiring a criminal background history check. This is a legal and effective way to screen potential employees who might have committed prior acts of lawlessness in their past which could impede or impair the safety and work requirements of an educational institution.
Other ethical considerations include “certain principles, such as the duty to keep promises and to tell the truth, which are universally acknowledged” (Kritsonis, 2007, p.467). When an employee is considered for a particular position or tenured assignment within an organization, the ethical commitment a potential employees has to the organization can be a key component in the decision on whether or not to hire that individual for the position within the organization.
If an employee is given a job or an assignment to do, it is assumed that the employee will work until the job assigned is completed to the best of his or her ability. The realm of ethics in human resource management becomes the assumption of “right action” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 438) on the part of all employees within the organization, hired under the umbrella and purposes of a single organizational goal and mission.
Synoptics
The sixth realm of meaning applicable to the human resource department is the realm of synoptics. “Synoptics is a term that comprises meanings having an integrative function, uniting meanings from all the realms into a unified perspective, that proving a ‘single vision’ or ‘synopsis’ of meanings” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 479). The synoptic realms of meaning include the areas of history, religion, and philosophy. Each realm “achieves the integration of meanings in a different way: history by imaginatively re-creating the past, religion by disclosure of ultimate meanings, and philosophy by the critical interpretation of expressed meaning, and philosophy by the critical interpretation of expressed meanings” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 483).
Work History
“History is the study of what human beings have deliberately done in the past” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 797). In the synoptic realm of meaning, work histories are significant to the overall application, acceptance, and promotion and an individual worker and employee. It is important that a human resource manager takes the time to review the work history of a potential employee in order to determine what strengths and weaknesses that individual potentially will bring to the organization. Effective human resource managers will be diligent in determining if the past work history and education of an individual is conducive to the overall mission and goals of their particular institution and overall educational mandates and goals.
Religion and Faith in the Workplace
Workplaces are diverse microcosms of society. Within every organization, men and women bring in their own personal moral and religious histories that are intrinsically a significant part of who he or she is or will become. Within most religious sectors of our society, there are moral and ethical fundamental foundations that lend themselves to developing people of character and high moral objectivity and consciousness. The attributes of fairness, honesty, and respect are all mandates of most religious traditions and therefore are conducive and appropriate topics of inclusion and discussion in the modern day workforce.
Strong organizations are dependent upon sound leadership “Leadership involves more than a charismatic personality or particular skills; rather, leadership is about character. Character does not emerge from nowhere but springs from deeply held convictions. If leaders are to withstand the inherent pressures in their positions. then their character must be anchored in faith” (Weirsbe, 1993, p. 8).
Character is an essential element of a successful organization. Day to day decisions must be made that will inherently affect the life and future success and usefulness of an organization. Employees should have the right to express their faith in the workplace. Faith in a Higher Power can strengthen and energize oneself and cause the individual to be more productive and intuitive in their day to day assignments in the workplace.
Members of the educational workforce, although infallible human beings, still have the capacity to have a deep and residing faith in all-knowing and all-powerful Creator God. Employees with a well-grounded faith will have a deep reservoir of strength to draw upon when difficulties in the workplace arrive and challenge the employee to draw deep within themselves in order to find answers and solutions to the everyday problems that arise in the world of work, responsibilities and assigned duties.
Philosophy
In the synoptic realm of meaning, “philosophy deals intricately with questioning” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 536). The human resource manager can be seen as the philosopher of the organization. “The philosopher not only wants to think but wants others to think as well” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 544). The philosophy of an organization must state the purpose of the organization and its essential reason for being.
Within the philosophy of an organization, human resource leaders should seek to hire only those people who adhere to the mission and goals of the organization. Therefore, the human resource manager looks for individuals who are capable, inquisitive and intuitive to fill significant roles in the overall organization. In the workplace, people who work in our organizations are not robotic creatures with no feelings, aspirations, or passions regarding their work and other life issues. Developing a sound philosophical basis for an educational setting is critical in ensuring a dynamic and forward thinking organization.
To establish a school district’s philosophies and goals, it is necessary to embark upon a pathway of strategic planning in order to clarify the goals of the organization and to facilitate the development of a strategic plan on how to accomplish the goals and objectives of the organization. “Strategic planning can facilitate communication and participation, accommodate divergent interests and values, foster wise and reasonably analytical decision making and promote successful implementation and accountability” (Bryson, 2004, p. 6).
In the area of human resource management, contributing to the development of the organizational mission statement and organizational philosophy is crucial to the overall well being of the organization. The human resource department can be vital in interjecting valuable data in the area of human resource development that can enhance and improve the productivity of the entire organization.
One way to generate an effective philosophical basis for an organization is to adopt a three step planning process to align the various departments of an organization together in order to work towards one common goal and purpose. The three step process to developing an effective human resource mission statement, goal, and philosophy can be achieved by implementing a procedure that determines where you are now, where you want to be, and how you want to get there.
A three step planning process must involve the entire organization. It is crucial to the success of the school or district to have a plan and direction on how to achieve the outlined goals and philosophical mandates determined to be an effective plan and route for implantation of the districts stated goal and objectives.
Within the synoptic realm of meaning, philosophy is an important aspect of the overall success and mission of an educational human resource department. “The method of philosophy is essentially that of dialectic. By this meant a process of conceptual examination by raising questions, proposing answers, and developing implications of those answers in continuing cycles” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 530). It is critical that a philosophy of the workplace be outlined and communicated to the work force in order to develop “a critically examined, coherent system of ideas by which all the constituent parts of the course of instruction are identified and ordered” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 5).
The overall philosophy of an organization must take into account the large contribution of human capital and see to it that the workplace encourages a place of growth and opportunity. “Most people want to accomplish something; they want to believe that they are making a contribution to society. Humans want to see the fruits of their labor and question their self worth” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 68). Incorporating a workplace philosophy that encourages employees to contribute, will greatly enhance the overall productivity of the entire educational organization.
“If philosophy as a synoptic discipline is to provide a common basis for interpreting the several realms of meaning, then a single language for interpreting the several realms of meaning, then a single language system must be applied to the entire range of meanings to be interpreted” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 532). Communicating the philosophy of an organization must be inline with company policies, traditions, and overall mandates and purposes of the organization.
To determine the philosophy of an organization, human resource managers along with other leaders in the educational community must develop a comprehensive statement of policy in line with the educational organizations purpose, goals, and inherent organizational value. Many ideas and constructs within the formation of this philosophy will be abstract in nature, yet intrinsically valuable to the organization.
The first step is to determine “where you are” (Bryson, 2004, p. 7) in the organization. The human resource department is responsible for evaluating the current human resource capital within the organization and then determining what people, skills, and programs are currently in place. Step 2 is to decide “where you want to be” (Bryson, 2004, p. 8). In this step the human resource department has the responsibility of forecasting into the future on what they want to see the overall organization look like in a pre-determined and set time period. The third step process in initiating a workable educational institutional philosophy is to determine “how to get there” within the pre-described time period adopted in step 2. The human resource department is responsible for making sure that all areas of human resource management are carried for the betterment of the organization.
Development of an organization’s philosophy must include input from all stakeholders in the community and in the institution itself. Another technique that can be used to enhance the philosophy of an organization is to embark upon the basic analysis technique. This technique requires the strategic planning team to brainstorm in order to produce a list of the organization’s stakeholders, to identify the criteria these stakeholders use for judging the organization’s performance” (Bryson, 2004, p. 36).
Developing a philosophical policy and view for an organization requires that managers utilize a significant about of higher level thinking and discourse in order to develop a philosophical mandate and policy that is broad enough to accommodate the many nuances and levels of accommodations of an educational human resource department and organization. Therefore, time and diligence should be applied to any procedural or philosophical policy development and implementation process in order to assure that the scope and the guidelines developed for the organization benefit all involved in the educational community and other related educational programs and facilities.
Men and women who contribute to the development of the educational philosophical plan must be individuals who are able to work both in the concrete and abstract nuances of the educational world and community. It is to be noted that “the concepts used in philosophical discourse are of a high order of abstraction” (Kritsonis, p. 533). Developing an educational philosophy requires that the organization determines how best to utilize the resources available for the organization and to determine how to best utilize these resources in the overall plan of the mission goal and statement of the institution.
Devising Human Resource Training
Every human resource philosophy should incorporate within its structure an innate sense of worth and value for all employees working within the organizational structure. Human resource managers are the gatekeepers of the educational process in that every employee of the district must first pass the scrutiny of the human resource manager and recruiter. The basic philosophy human resource departments should include the educational factor of training employees to better utilize their skills and talents in the educational work place. Initially, human resource managers must always seek to hire quality faculty and staff members. Once hired, time, money, and attention must be given to employees to ensure that their maximum educational and work potential is realized.
In the process of hiring teachers and educators for the classroom, human resource managers must also keep in mind that “the aim of teaching is comprehensive understanding” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 811). Teachers should be hired who are able to facilitate learning to unique and diverse groups of student learners on a daily and consistent basis. “Good teaching requires that some convincing pattern be used to coordinate the materials taught” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 813). Human resource managers can help to facilitate the overall learning environment of the educational environment by providing the opportunity to facilitate state of the art human resource training seminars and workshops to enhance employee productivity and effectiveness in the classroom and overall school environment.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, the Watkins/Kritsonis Guide to Human Resource Management gives the human resource department unique and broadened understandings of the overall management philosophies and criteria necessary for implementing a successful and productive human resource department. The successful operation of a human resource department in the educational community is critical to the future of our public and private schools and educational institutions. Therefore, an in-depth approach to human resource management is appropriate and beneficial in that it gives managers a deeper and more philosophic base to manage and support employees within the educational community.
References
Brimley, V. Jr., & Garfield, R. R. (2005). Financing education in a climate of change (9th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson, 43, 248, 374, 380, 381, 395.
Bryson, J. M. (2004). Strategic planning for public and nonprofit organizations.
San Francisco, California:Josey-Bass, 6, 7, 36.
Clark, D. (2006). NW Link. Retrieved April 16, 2007, from Jumping through hoops: Theory X and Theory Y Web site: http://www.nwlink.com
Clayton, G. E. (1995). Economics principles and practices. New York, NY:Glencoe McGraw Hill, 18, 27.
Kellaway, L. (2005, September, 5). The infinite potential to get out of bed in the morning. Financial Times, Retrieved April 16, 2007, from http://pv-ezproxy.tamu.edu:2074
Kritsonis, W.A., PhD. (2007). Ways of knowing through the realms of meaning. Houston, TX:National Forum Journals, 5, 29, 68, 111, 114, 116, 117, 128, 129, 245, 257, 278, 279, 331, 332, 333, 400, 479, 483, 493, 494, 530, 532, 533, 790, 795, 797, 811, 813. Partially funded by the class of 2005 of the Oxford Round Table in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England.
Myers, N., & Robertson, S. (2004). Creating connections. Scottsdale, AZ:The Council of Educational Facilities Planners International, 6.
Wiersbe, W. (1993). Be strong. Colorado Springs, CO:Chariot Victor,
8, 145.
Witzel, M. (2005, August, 9). Business Life Summer School. Financial Times, Retrieved April 16, 2007, http://pv-ezproxy.tamu.edu:2074/pqdweb
See: www.nationalforum.com
Educational Administration and Supervision Journal
26 (4) 2009
National Implications: Utilizing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning for a Post-Modernistic Approach to Affecting Change in Special Education
Debbie Watkins
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
Central Washington University
College of Education and Professional Studies
ABSTRACT
Current trends in Special Education have been prescribed through federal legislation mandates such as the “Individuals with Disability Act” (IDEA) and the “No Child Left Behind Act.” However, despite legislative agendas intended to spur academic achievement with students with disabilities, many students designated as Special Education students with a learning disability are actually receiving an inferior education and falling behind the educational progress of their peers, even though most students with learning disabilities have average intelligence. The current educational system does not promote an avenue to challenge the students to their full academic potential. By applying postmodern techniques to the field of special education, new paradigms for success and achievement can be achieved by all students preprogrammed to believe that they can never achieve more than the status-quo modernists have proposed they can achieve and accomplish. Utilizing the theoretical foundations and structure of the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning as a post modernistic model of excellence for Special Education, sufficient strides in educational achievement can be made for all students labeled as special needs and learning disabled students.
Note: Special note of gratitude to Dr. Kimberly Grantham Griffith for her assistance in getting this article published. See: www.nationalforum.com
______________________________________________________________________
Introduction
“The school leaders of the twenty-first century must have knowledge and understanding of the purpose of education and the role of leadership in modern society as well as various ethical frameworks and perspectives on ethics, the values of the diversschool community, professional codes of ethics, and the philosophy and history of education” (Ubben, Hughes & Norris, 2001, p. 1). By challenging our students and by opening up new paradigms for educational success, not only will the individual student be positively affected, but our nation will celebrate the successes of our young people. “Schools are the reflections of a nation. Education affects each nation’s society and determines the status of the masses, as well as the status of the individuals” (Kritsonis, 2002, p. 97).
Many of the students who could be categorized as “least responsive” and “at-risk” of failure have been placed in most cases under the auscipicious management of the Special Education department which is unfortunately tied to monstrous federal, state, and local bureaucracies that potentially weakens the students resolve and purpose to achieve more than the system has mandated that they can achieve.
While Special Education services for some students can actually provide for a better and more productive life, some students, especially those of average intelligence, have in many cases been labeled as underachievers and the students in many cases have bought into this Pygmalion effect and have reflected educational progress in line with the expectations that educational leaders have placed upon them.
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to show how the field of educational administration has been influenced by a modernist agenda which has hindered the progress of Special Education students in that lowered expectations have created an attitude of academic complacency for many students deemed as learning disabled in today’s Special Education system. By proposing a new post modernistic agenda for learning, special education students can succeed to new levels of academic achievement and success. Utilizing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning as a theoretical framework for success, a post modernistic approach to education can be developed that can challenge and inspire even the most reluctant student learner.
The Battleground in Educational Administration
The battleground in educational administration lies between two philosophical basis, modernism and postmodernism. The modernistic train of thought is one of bureaucracy and the innate attitude that “one-size” fits all in educational administration and implantation of educational protocol and learning curricula for students within the confines of the educational community.
Students who learn that the academic system allows irresponsibility and excuse-driven mentalities will potentially bring these same lackadaisical ideas to the workplace. Regardless of the career path chosen, men and women in the workforce are expected to be responsible, reliable, and dedicated employees to their communities. If these “virtues” of the economic workplace have not been taught and grasped in the educational community, it is likely that future production in our country will go down drastically. Shoddiness in the workplace reflects indifference and an uncaring attitude of the employee toward the employer. When students are allowed to “get by” with just the basics, or sometimes even less than the basic requirements other high school students, they are programmed to repeat this “accepted” high school behavior in the work force.
The Realities of a “Top-Down” Modernistic
Management System in Special Education
1. Students are labeled.
2. Expectations for students are reduced, even if the student is capable of high levels of achievement in the classroom.
3. Low expectations produce low performance.
4. Students begin to view themselves as dumb, stupid or incapable when the reality in many cases is that these same students can become highly successful in the academic classroom and in some cases are able to exceed academic goals and
and standards set for the average or above average regular education student
The Modernistic Approach to Special Education Administration
A one-size fits all program of Special Education services has been handed down to educational administrators who are bound by law to uphold the requirements of law found in legal bounds as recorded in the “No Child Left Behind Act” and the IDEA laws which have set boundaries and guidelines for the implementation of Special Education services for all school age students between the ages 3 to 21. Although the rhetoric for Special Education reform sounds progressive and promising, the reality is that the modernistic approach to Special Education is not challenging our students to their full potential and therefore, our students are not being fully educated and trained for their future vocations and life’s work.
The “Ivory Tower” Theory of Special Education
1. If classroom accommodations are mandated for each student, “no child will be left behind.”
2. Special Education federal laws and mandates are appropriate for all schools and organizations serving the educational needs of Special Education student.
3. Individualized IEP’s will provide needed educational services for all students under the umbrella and qualifications of a Special Education student.
4. There is one set of prescribed standards that can be utilized for the success of all children.
5. Special Education students need to be pampered and remediated and not required to meet all of the standards and goals of general education students.
6. The ARD committee can make the best educational decision for the needs of the student’s individualized educational needs and behavior components.
Taylorism and De-skilling and Depersonalization of the Special Education Student
Special Education services for struggling, low performing students of average intelligence is based on a pre-described discrepancy model. If it is determined that a student’s intelligence is within a normal or near normal range, but the student is performing below acceptable levels in certain subjects, the student is determined to have a learning disability. However, current research suggests many students who have been “diagnosed” with a learning disability in fact “have dyspedagogia, a history of inadequate instruction most notably in reading and language arts or math, or have not had basic behavior moral supports or social adjustments” (McLaughlin & Nolet, 2004, p. 11).
. At the time of identification as a Special Education student, mandated federal laws and requirements go into effect and a student is given an IEP (Individualized Education Plan) as a “cure-all” for the educational dilemmas the student has incurred up until that time. In many districts IEP’s are watered down versions of academic mandates that hinder a student from ever reaching his or her academic potential. For example, an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) for a 10th grade high school student containing specific subject matter goals for an entire year might read:
1. The student will be able to name three proponents of chemical reactions with 70% accuracy.
2. The student will demonstrate mastery of the periodic table by creating a notebook of chemical names and symbols with 70% accuracy.
3. The student will construct a poster of Newton’s Three Laws of Motion with 70% accuracy.
It is obvious that when Special Education law allows for a watered down version of the curriculum to be acceptable for students who are otherwise bright and intelligent, the overall academic climate and achievement level of the Special Education student will ultimately be diminished.
The IEP is in many ways similar to the job simplification model employed by Frederick Taylor. “Frederick Taylor employed the tactic of job simplification known as deskilling (Hardy and Clegg, 1996, p. 625). Job simplication, akin to the simplification of academic skills noted and described in student Individualized Education Plans, reduces a job to its “lowest common denominators” (Fenwick, 2003, p. 116). Taylorism created a deskilled workforce that could be hired at a lower wage and could be replaced easily from a large pool of under-prepared and under-trained work forces.
Unfortunately, in our educational system today, Special Education students are being “de-skilled” through low expectations by teachers, administrators, parents, and governmental bureaucrats. Just because a student appears to struggle in a particular area, it does not mean that genius does not exist in the Special Education student. With effort, effective teaching, and a creative curriculum, it is possible that students with learning disabilities can “exceed expectations” when given the right educational instruction and encouragement.
The modernistic approach to providing one way and process for prescribing an educational plan for a student is currently not working to the benefit of our special education students and in many ways is hindering their success in their academic and career aspirations. To combat the modernistic Taylorism bureaucratic mentality in the area of Special Education, a new and more expanded paradigm needs to be established in order to facilitate a higher order of thinking and learning for America’s public education school system.
The “Einstein” Factor in Education
One student labeled as inferior, dull, and educationally lifeless overcame the pronouncements of failure and defeat and became known as one of the greatest scientific mind of all times. This student was Albert Einstein. At a young age, his teacher advised his parents to take him home in that he was dull and listless and not able to learn. His genius was not recognized by the educational bureaucratic status quo. However, fortunately for the world we live in, Albert Einstein was not ultimately hindered by the misguided elementary teacher who pronounced an educational death sentence on Albert Einstein. Albert Einstein did not stay within the bureaucratic expectations of his educational mentors. Instead, he burst forth with ambition, genius, and creativity that literally helped to revitalize and theoretically change the scientific world forever.
Today’s scientific bureaucracy would not have allowed Einstein’s genius to grow. However, Einstein’s life is a testament to the fact that boundaries and pre-described predictions of failure and loss in one’s life can be overcome. Einstein remains a model of hope and encouragement to all students who struggle but who want to achieve greatness and legitimacy in their life’s work and vocation.
In our Special Education classrooms and student populations, there are doctors, and lawyers, mechanics, and teachers. Their potential will never be realized unless the educational system that imprisons them to a state of low achievement is dramatically changed.
Overlooking Potential
When a student is designated with a learning disability, many times his or her potential is overlooked or discounted. An example of how even a potential king was discounted and overlooked can be found in the story of King David. A king was needed for Israel. Under Judean law, it was the responsibility of God’s prophet to identify and anoint the new king for service. When the prophet came to David’s home, the best looking and “most gifted” sons were brought before the prophet. However, he knew the king was not among the sons presented. It was not until he met David that he knew Israel’s king had been found. It is possible that in the field of special education, students with great potential will go unrecognized and will continue to be served with minimal educational strategies and lowered expectations for success.
A New Postmodern Approach to the Field of Special Education
The postmodernist approach to Special Education allows the educator and educational administrator to go beyond the bounds of accepted traditional ways of educating and training the minds of young students. No child can be considered a failure who has the potential to think, create, and explore. New educational paradigms and boundaries for educational leadership can be expanded through developing a wider and more theoretical basis for learning and leadership that will greatly benefit our students, faculty, and staff not only now, but will surely influence future generations as well who learn the expansive power of the search for knowledge and wisdom in the educational environment.
In order to change the paradigms of a failed system, there must be a new and broadened educational plan that will meet the needs of a diverse group of students who within themselves have the potential of genius, but left to the auspiciousness of a bureaucratic structure, will never realize their full potential.
Developing a New Theoretical Framework for Special Education
“There can be no claim to support a knowledge base for a profession without a bonda fide theoretical framework to define and support the derivative professional practice” (Fenwick, 2003, p. 3). A post modernistic approach to Special Education based on the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning by William A. Kritsonis, PhD, offers a structure for new avenues in educational administration based on creative and innovative techniques applicable to all areas of educational innovation and techniques.
“Postmodernism is about constructing a way of looking at the world of ideas, concepts, and systems of thought through the historicity of context and the shifting nature of linguistic meaning and symbols as they are manifested in discursive practices which run through educational administration and related fields” (English, 2003, p. 3). A theoretical basis to opening the doors of creative thought and application to the fields of educational administration can be found through the tenets and philosophies of the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning viewed through the telescopic view of the challenges nd applications of postmodernism in the world of educational administration and leadership.
Meaning Through the Scope of Human Nature
In the context of human learning, many fail to realize the connection of the wide body of knowledge available in the educational community as compared to the real world lives of normal, everyday people. However, not all philosophies of educational leadership are in agreement that there is more than one way to accomplish a goal or maxim for an organization. It is the educator’s job to bring about the focus of meaning into parity with the everyday lives of the students who are committed and assigned to a particular educational institution and educational society. The educational leader must also be “aware of the enemies of meaning that arise within the human situation and to organize instruction in such a way as to overcome or minimize the threatened meaninglessness” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 55).
Knowledge, education, and wisdom are complex constructs that defy the one sided operational management technique that limits finding reasonable solutions from the past. “The educator needs to understand human life as a complex of meanings and to know what the various realms of meaning encompass” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 55). The complexity of life supersedes the modernistic notion that there is one right way to accomplish all goals and objectives in the educational community. Postmodernism exploration to the scope and purpose of meaning and education is essential in the ongoing expansion of an educational system that truly meets the needs of the student and one that prepares that student for meaningful and profitable work and contributions throughout the student’s expected life time.
“Current methods in education have not solved the major sociopolitical and instructional problems of race or class, and they have not reduced the gap between the socioeconomic haves and have notes” (English, 2003, p. 60). Embedded deep within the confines of educational administration has been a modernistic approach to solving the educational dilemmas of our elementary and secondary schools of learning. In the field of Special Education, scientific management, “Taylorism”, and modernistic techniques have taken over the administration of our educational system with no significant evidence of student academic progress or success.
Federal laws have mandated that all students receiving Special Education services receive a free and appropriate education. The student’s educational goals and needs are then referred to a committee comprised of parents, the student, the administrator, Standardized data and selected testing results relating to a students I.Q. and performance on a limited number of assessments are then used as the main criteria for placing the student in a particular academic pathway. “To confine oneself to making decisions on standardized test data would be to:narrowly circumscribe a set of decisions on a fraction of the actual curriculm being taught within curricular areas being assessed” (Fenwick, 2003, p. 205).
Postmodernism challenges educators to look beyond standardized testing procedures to see the larger goals and aspirations of a student and then to develop programming conducive to the overall needs of the student. “The administrator’s reliance on “common sense,” his or her antenna about morale, anxiety, and intuition, all necessary ingredients in an administrator’s repertoire, may be lost in the insistence on using only hard data” (English, 2003, p. 205).
If our country is only as strong as the citizens that inhabit our nation, then it is incumbent upon the educational leadership of our country to change the paradigm of our educational system and to encourage diligence, hard work, and dedication to the goal of acquiring the knowledge and wisdom in the educational realm of everyday life and accomplishment.
A post modernistic approach to education is to view educational pursuits outside of a simplistic “one way” path to truth and right practices. “The postmodernist approaches theory with the idea that netanarratives (theories) are essential for the establishment of professional practice, but that many theories can contain practices which will prove beneficial to educating children in a variety of settings” (English, 2003, p. 4).
Inherent to learning is how to connect the art of learning to meaningful discourses in a wide range of academic disciplines in order to fully appreciate the depth and knowledge available to those who search diligently for truth and understanding in a new and systematic approach of learning. Current trends in educational leadership have a modernistic bent which lends itself to one right way of accomplishing a goal or objective. Despite the fact, that it is obvious that our educational system is not meeting the needs of all students, it is incumbent that new and postmodernist approach be taken to change the tide of educational bureaucracy to a system more in tune with student accomplishment, achievement, and success.
A framework to change the tide of the educational bureaucracy to a more student-centered approach to education can be found in the framework of the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning by William A. Kritsonis, PhD. This framework offers a new look at an old problem. How we educate our children today can chart the course of our nation and future generations for years to come. It is important that a theoretical basis that embraces not only the obvious truths of the educational paradigms, but a system of learning that allows for the development of complex reasoning skills, improved and enhanced communications among peers and educators, and an appreciation of how other areas of educational inquiry can help to broaden and enlighten a student’s educational experience to one of successful discourse, understanding, and application of difficult concepts to areas of education, vocational choice, and political discourse.
The first step in understanding how the tenets found in the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning can change educational discourse and practice is to first determine what the foundational source of all learning and educational discourse is and how foundational truths in educational leadership can be established to benefit the student, school, and educational community.
Meaning and Purpose in Education
Meaning and purpose are essential components of a fruitful and victorious life. Without meaning, purpose, and an ultimate goal, daily tasks can become unbearable. A tenet of many at-risk students is that the work they are required to do in school has no merit, purpose, or meaning for their everyday life and existence. In many instances, these students are correct. Modernistic approaches to education have eliminated the possibility that there may be a better way to conduct our educational system to the benefit of all concerned. Without a foundational purpose, motivating students to work hard, dig deeper into their studies, and to work at challenging projects until their successful fruition, students are unmotivated to dedicate themselves to educational projects and discourse.
Devising a Postmodern Secondary Curriculum
Utilizing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning
Secondary education is divided into a segmented, non-connecting consortium of individual classes that begin and end at a particular time with no seeming connection to the other classes taught during disconnected periods throughout the day. The Ways of Knowing Curriculum would teach traditional subjects, but elaborate on the concepts so that the curriculum is fluid and consistent.
A unique perspective in designing a new curriculum, especially for at-risk students, would be to completely do away with the adage that there are seven or eight classroom periods within the day. Instead of 50 minutes of English, History, Science, and Social Studies, a creative new perspective would be to design a classroom schedule that was made up of creative class periods based on structural concepts found in the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning
The first class assigned to at-risk students would be that of symbolics. The symbolics class period would be the introduction to the world of ordinary language, mathematics, and nondiscursive symbolic forms of communication. The symbolics class would be foundational and offer the opportunity to the low performing student to truly express what is in their heart and mind in order to facilitate a deeper understanding of the new and vibrant curriculum aimed at in-depth learning, retention and application of information.
Once a general mastery and understanding of the symbolic structure of ordinary language, mathematics, and nondiscursive symbolic forms is reasonably mastered and understood, the second level of meaning and understanding could be added to the student’s curriculum. Building upon the communication and math skills foundation laid during the student’s introduction to symbolics, empirical study into the world of Physical Science, Biology and the Social Science’s can be added.
To enhance learning and to expand the curriculum, student who are now working successfully and experiencing a more in-depth knowledge of the curricula can now add the Esthetic realm to their learning and enjoyment of education. The esthetic realm includes music, the visual arts, the arts of movement, and literature.
Now students embarked in this creative curriculum have involved themselves in a cohesive and congruent path of learning in which all areas of learning can be inter-dependent and therefore a knowledge of the whole enhance the singular study of a particular academic discipline
The next step in the ladder of success based on the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning curricular is to allow students to embark upon a path of self discovery through the synnoectic realm of personal knowledge. At-risk students many times assume their life and career path will be minimal and that opportunities for true success will not be allotted to them because of their academic success levels or lack thereof in their high school academic careers.
Synnoetic exploration can allow a student to see his or her potential in the real world of work and productive activity. Students who have had low expectations of themselves, may learn to see themselves as capable, intelligent, and creative human beings. Overcoming administrative labels that may have been placed on the students for years may be difficult to overcome, but once a student has a vision for who he or she can become, the sky truly becomes the limit for their predictive futures.
After introducing the synnoetic realm of meaning to the student population, the fifth realm of meaning can be added which is that of moral knowledge and the realm of ethics. Unless there is honesty and trust in any endeavor, the final outcome of the work can be tainted and destroyed based on wrong choices and poor ethical decisions.
The last Realm of Meaning in a postmodern curricula would be that of the synoptic realm involving history, religion, and philosophy. Students can be actively engaged in historical learning by understanding that “history is to engage in an imaginative recreation of the past, the success of which is measured by one’s ability to transcend the preoccupations and presuppositions of the practical present” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 767). Students who bring faith in the classroom have the opportunity to understand and appreciate the “profound mystery of the divine” (Kritsonis, p. 767). And finally, the capstone of the curriculum is to teach students to be able to question “beyond the obvious to the meanings that lie hidden beneath the surface of experience” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 767).
Changing the curriculum to a high-level, obtainable journey to knowledge and meaning is a unique and truly post modernistic approach to improving our current system of “cut and paste” educational realities and mandates.
It is obvious that significant change is needed within the educational community. Utilizing the post modernistic approach to education, can challenge educational administrators to think outside of the box and to expand the periphery of their educational vision to truly understand and grasp, that the educational needs of our country require that we produce competetent students who have the will, ability, and desire to dig deeper into learning and to apply their knowledge to the many facets of human endeavor and achievement. Utilizing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning as a post modernistic curriculum structure, ensures that new and exciting learning can and will take place in classrooms across America that were once staid, ineffective, and unproductive for our students.
To understand the dynamics of a new curriculum based on new paradigms of educational structure and presentation, it is important to understand each realm of meaning and how it applies to the specialized curriculum outlined above as the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning approach to education.
Symbolics
The first realm of meaning important to a new paradigm of learning is in the form of symbolics. Organized experiences can be communicated through either discursive or nondiscursive communication techniques. “The unique mark of being human is the capacity for experiencing meanings” (Kritsonis, 2007,p. 109). Once meanings are experienced, than those meanings can be communicated . “Language is not merely a system of signals in which a property conditioned organism automatically responds. It contains meanings, ideation, or the mental power to form ideas, intervenes between word and act” (Kritsonis,2007, p. 113).
In the field of educational administration “speech is an intellectual, not a mechanical, activity.” Therefore, great thought should be taken when communicating ideas, mandates, and new philosophies to the educational community. Language provides the venue of communication that allows the free expression of new ideas and possibilities to be communicated to an ever-increasing audience of students, educators, and professional leaders responsible for the implication of high standards and increased productivity in the educational community.
“Postmodernism is about constructing a way of looking at the world of ideas, concepts and systems of though through the historicity of context and the shifting nature of linguistic meaning and symbols as they are manifested in discursive practices which run through educational administration and related fields” (Fenwick, 2003, p.3). Languages are discursive. This means that language is the vehicle of effective and informational communication techniques. “Nondiscursive symbolic forms are used in all the arts for the expression of feelings, values, commitments, and insights in the domains of personal knowledge, metaphysics, and religion” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 151.1).
When an educational leader seeks to communicate ideas, utilizing discursive forms of communication allows the communication of “ideas in a consecutive, connected fashion, following the principles of common logic” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 153). When nondiscurve communication techniques are utilized, “the aim is not literal statement, but figurative expression” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 153). Both types of communication are necessary for the educational administrator to employ if he or she is to effectively communicate the needs, goals, and aspirations of an organization to its selected workforce, student body, and educational community.
It is interesting note, that communication occurs among all species. Discursive communication has been studied among the animal kingdom just as the study has been conducted among human species. “The ‘language’ of honeybees is far more complex than that of the spiders or fiddler crabs. When a forager bee returns to the hive, if it has located a source of food it does it does a dance that communicates certain information about the source to other members of the colony” (Jannedy, Poletto & Weldon, 1994, p. 23).
Post modernistic Ways of Experiencing New Learning Techniques for At-Risk Students
Teaching meaning at a different level is a post modernistic view in that it goes far beyond the concept of many educators that it is enough to hear a story, read briefly about the characters, and then answer simplistic one sided questions regarding the content of the material read. “Dante’s Divine Comedy, one of the greatest works in all literature, is an outstanding example of verbal symbolic forms used to present nondiscursive meanings on several levels, ofr cosmic scope and unive3rsal human significance” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 169).
Educational leaders who challenge the simplistic black and white questioning of material on a simplistic one sided view, will find their students challenged and enlighted when they learn to appreciate “the study of meanings that cannot be expressed by literal uttereance” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 169). A challenge to administrators is to replace negative expectations with positive expectations for student achievement. When a student senses that others see that student in a particular light, a “Pygmalion effect” is inevitable in light of student achievement and success. There are certain non-discursive symbolic representations demonstrated indiscriminately through rules and regulations in the special education venue. An example of how the Pygmalion effect can affect a student’s educational progress and self-esteem in the area of academic success and achievement.
1. Remedial textbooks that are generic and basic and give otherwise capable students the perception that administrative leaders believe they are incapable of significant learning and achievement.
2. Individualized plans that reflect to the student that we believe you are incapable of performing tasks equal to those of your peers, even though in reality the “special education” students may be brighter and more intelligent in certain areas of expertise than their regular education friends and classmates.
3. Lowered expectations for otherwise capable students who carry the special educational label. This mind-set can fallow a student for the rest of his or her life and can influence and direct the course of their entire life including what they do for work and how they are able to support themselves
The Second Realm of Meaning: Empirics
“The second realm empirics, includes the sciences of the physical world, of living things, and of man. These sciences provide factual descriptions, generationalizations, and theoretical formulations and explanations that are based upon observation and experimentation in the world of matter, life, mind and society” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 12). Emperics specifically deals with Biology, Physical Science, Psychology, and the Social Sciences. Postmodernism supports the study of all of these subject areas. But in the postmodernism tradition, study in the empirical realm “is about understanding that posture of exclusivity is rejected, that is the idea of their being one right way or one right science or one right method of quiry to pursue truth as it is constructed” (Fenwick, 2003, p. 3).
The Third Realm: Esthetics
“The third realm, esthetics, contains the various arts, such as music, the visual arts, the arts of movement, and literature. Meanings in this realm are concerned with the contemplative perception of particular significant things as unique objectifications of ideated subjectivies” (Kritsonis, p. 12). Expanding the curriculum to encompass a wide knowledge of the esthetical nature of all learning can be part of an exciting agenda inline with postmodernism’s ideas, goals and values. Students can be taught to see the world through the arts, music, and literature and a more-multi-faceted venue thus allowing for greater breadth of knowledge and cohesiveness in the educational process. Teaching a student to interact and acknowledge how the esthetical works related to learning can be beneficial to the learning process is an important facet of a student’s overall learning process and experience. “The objective world is therefore intimately bound to the eyes of the beholder and his or her politics, culture, language, and conceptual-affective awareness state, i.e., consciousness” (English, 2003, p.14). The author of Inner Visions and Exploration of Art and the Brain has stated that the brain is “no mere passive chronicler of the external physical reality but an active participant in generating the visual image, according to its own rules and programs” (Zeki, 1999, pp. 1-14)
The Fourth Realm: Synnoetics
“The fourth realm, synnoetics, embraces what Michael Polanyl calls “Personal knowledge” and Martin Buber the “I-Thou” relation” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 12). In the synnotic realm, the application of “personal or relational knowledge is concrete, direct, and existential. It may apply to other persons, to oneself, or even to things” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 12).
When students are given the opportunity to explore the ramifications of personal knowledge in areas related to their educational and vocational careers, synnoetic knowledge can be extremely beneficial to the individual student and ultimately to society itself.
An example of how the application of synnoetic structures in an individual’s education can affect educational and career outcomes can be seen in the following story about a young girl’s struggle for self-realization and accomplishment. This true story began in the Soviet Union when a young girl was deemed to be dull and uneducable.
Under the realm of communism in the Soviet Union, student educational choice did not exist. Under the communist regime, a student’s future was decided at a young age. You were placed either in a subservient career path, or you were elevated to a professional level of education which would allow you to have a more fulfilling and purposeful career.
A case in point, is the story of a young girl who was destined to be a janitor and custodial work for the rest of her life. At a young age, her educational path was chosen for her. However, her parents moved to the United States. Once in the United States, this young girl began breaking through the barriers of her past, and chose a new direction for her life. Through her ability to recognize that her talents and abilities exceeded those pronounced upon her b the Soviet regime, this young girl was able to overcome a destiny far below her own abilities and aspire to greatness utilizing her synnoetic understanding of her own personal strengths and attributes. Today she is a medical doctor, successful and fulfilled in her work and vocational aspirations.
In the United States, we are also guilty of labeling students at a very early age.
There are two extremes of designated labels that we tend to place on our students. The fortunate students are labeled “gifted and talented.” For these students there are creative programming options, new ways of learning and doing, and an ever increasing opportunity for expanding the boundaries of their intellect and creativity.
For less fortunate students, the label affixed that of “learning disabled” and in need of Special Education. The real life implication of this type of labeling is that we as the bureaucracy have now confined you to expectations of low achievement, lackadaisical work, minimal requirements, and bureaucratic structures that will hinder you from contributing to society and your fullest potential. Special Education in many school systems is simply a place to bureaucratically place students who do not fit the mode of a mainstream educational learner.
The Fifth Realm: Ethics (Moral Knowledge)
“Moral teaching, like instruction in personal relations, is plagued by unimaginative practicality and obviousness” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 766). When students are truly taught to engage in ethical discourse and discussion, “authentic moral meanings are reestablished only when the extraordinary mystery of unconditional obligation is recognized and when the secret inward claim of conscience is reinforced by the consideration of moral dilemmas where the easy justifications of prudence and custom do not suffice” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 766).
Educational administrators have the responsibility to work toward setting high standards of morality and ethical efficiency in the workplace. The predecessor of postmodernism often overlooked the relevance of moral knowledge in the workplace. “Modernism has depersonalized and dehumanized schools and the leaders who inhabit them by robbing them of any voice of morality or moral values” (English, p. 29). Postmodernism recognizes that “the twenty-first century will have to recover a vision of man being inherent moral value and moral agency” (Eberly, 1995, p. 10).
The Sixth Realm: Synoptics
“The sixth realm, synoptics, refers to the meanings that are comprehensively integrative. This realm includes history, religion, and philosophy. These disciplines combine empirical, esthetic, and synnoetic meanings into coherent wholes” (Kritsonis, 2007, p. 13). They synoptic realm includes the historical, religious, and philosophical studies of man’s search for meaning in his past, his current reason for being, and in his search for a connectedness to God which affords purpose, peace, and salvation in this life and in the life to come.
Students, as well as administrators, should have a firm grasp on the past events in human history. In the historical realm, lessons of previous generations can give a broad base of information, knowledge, and wisdom in regards to how life was lived in the past and how lessons learned during this time period can affect decisions made today. With a strong, analytical background of historical knowledge professions in all fields, including educational administration, can benefit from applying wisdom to knowledge and acting upon the learned observation in a positive and productive manner.
Religion is an important part of our society and culture. To deny that man is a spiritual creature is to deny man’s total existence. Political correctness in the current age has discouraged many acts of religious volition and in essence has denied basic freedoms to members of our society who believe and espouse to a Higher Power who is active and present in one’s everyday life.
Administrators with religious faith have the same freedom of speech rights that those who espouse no belief traditions are endowed with. “Religion and faith have anchored many decision makers in their administrative and leadership positions over time, from Mahatma Gandhi to George W. Bush” (English, 2003, p. 173). Therefore, has history has shown, faith can play an important part in the shaping of an organization, a state, or even a country. In the light of postmodernism’s expansion of boundaries, religion can play an important an integral role in the personal and professional lives of educational administrators.
The philosophy component inherent in the synoptic realm challenges both students, teachers, and administrators to develop a sound basis for one’s belief. This entails great study, thought, and foresight. One’s philosophy is not a neutral collection of scattered ideas and independent thought patterns. A true philosophical base is contingent on gathering the sum of one’s own knowledge and beliefs and articulating a system of belief that is capable of guiding and directing one’s personal and career goals and decisions.
Concluding Remarks
Postmodernism challenges the theory that there is only one right way to achieve or accomplish a specific goal or objective. In light of educational administration in the field of Special Education, new paradigms for operation are needed to ensure that we do not loose a generation of students in both their mind, body, and soul because we as a nation are unwilling to try new techniques and procedures to educate this challenging, but still reachable population of the student body.
Postmodernism challenges leaders to “think outside of the box.” This pattern of thinking allows the educational administrator to seek new ways to solve old dilemmas, such as how to inspire, motivate, and challenge a group of students who have been designated as members of the special education school population. Utilizing the Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning supports the postmodernism theory that there is more than one way to look at a subject and to learn and understand its concepts. By combining the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning with the ideas and philosophies described as postmodernism, new opportunities for achievement and success are now available to the school administrator overseeing and directing the “educational adventure” of at-risk students designated as learning-disabled.
References
Eberly, D. (1995). Even Newt can’t save us. Wall Street Journal, February 3, p. A10.
As quoted in Fenwick, p. 29
English, F. (2003). The postmodern challenge to the theory and practice of educational administration, Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd.
Hardy C. and Clegg S., (1996). Some dare call it power, Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage, p. 625.
Jannedy, S., Poletto, R. & Weldon, T., (1994). Language files: materials for an introduction language and linguistics, Ohio:Ohio State University Press.
Kritsonis, W.A., PhD. (2007). Ways of knowing through the realms of meaning, Partially funded by the 2005 class of the Oxford Round Table in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England.
Kritsonis, W.A., PhD. (2002). William Kritsonis, PhD on Schooling, Ashland, Ohio.
McLaughlin M. & Nolet, V. (2004). What every principal needs to know about special education, Thousand Oaks, CA:Corwin Press
Ubben G., Hughes L., & Norris, C. (2001). The principal: creative leadership for effective schools, Boston, MA:Allyn and Bacon.
Zeki,S. (1999) Inner vision: An exploration of art and the brain, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-14.
See: www.nationalforum.com
Educational Administration and Supervision Journal
26 (4) 2009
Without Limits: Breaking the Rules with Postmodernism to Improve Educational Practices in Order to Best Serve Students: National Recommendations
Desiree A. Skinner
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Academic Advisor
Bryan Independent School District
Bryan, Texas
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
Central Washington University
College of Education and Professional Studies
Ellensburg, Washington
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford
Oxford, England
_________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
This article is intended to aggressively stimulate provocative ideas about educational practices. In a time when the status quo is easier and more cost effective to maintain in public schools, Dr. Fenwick English attacks these views with a postmodern challenge. It is time for school leaders to consider more than one solution to the problems they face, and find the courage to solve them. The future of our world rests in our children. The time is now to capture our youth and give them the best and most creative education we can and which they deserve.
Note: Thanks to Dr. Kimberly Grantham Griffith for her assistance in getting this article published. See: www.nationalforum.com
Introduction
Everyday we ask our students to reach within themselves and do the best they can. We ask them to really stretch their abilities in order to discover their individual potential. As educators, can we say that we are professionally doing the same? Are we thinking outside the box in order to serve our students as best we can? Is it possible that we are not providing our students the best education has to offer?
Purpose of the Article
The purpose of this article is to discover ways to improve educational practices by implementing postmodernism according to Fenwick W. English in his text The Postmodern Challenge to the Theory and Practice of Educational Administration. A postmodern approach requires educational leaders to reverse the contradictions that exist in schools, and make decisions that are appropriate for the situation at hand. For example, many times there is not enough funding for specific curriculum but there is enough funding to increase a coach’s salary or to create another administrative position.
Modernist Theory
Modernist Theory is currently what dominates public school; it is about conformity, security, and boundaries. Modernism is absolute truth based on rationality and science. “Modernism can be characterized as a pursuit of grand theories or grand narratives (metanarratives) which, following the principle of parsimony, attempt to explain the greatest number of phenomena in the smallest set of laws, axioms, or theories” (English, 2003, pg. 248). Modernist theory is concerned with being right at all costs. To be “right” must mean that there is only one answer. Over time as things do not improve, the modernist will not change course because “the modernist is only concerned about being ‘right’ no matter what the context may be over time” (English, 2003, pg. 5). If a solution is perpetuating the symptoms, or maintaining the status quo, is it working? So again, the “right” answer may not be compatible with the situation of the school.
Education needs to adapt with the changing student population. “Current methods in education have not solved the major sociopolitical and instructional problems of race or class, and they have not reduced the gap between the socioeconomic haves and have-nots” (English, 2003, pg. 60). If we need to make a change, what is it? From a modernist point of view, this is difficult because modernist believe in certitude, that there is only one answer to a question, a perceived universal truth. Change is a slow process in a modernist world. It is difficult for a modernist to change quickly because there must be research to support the option. A modernist is not going to be the first to venture out and try something new, something that no one else has tried. The modernist does not want to take a risk because a risk might mean failure.
In a school setting, from a modernist view, there is only one view; there is only one knowledge base to work from. English (2003) emphasizes that postmodernists would deny the concept of one knowledge base to avoid having knowledge overpower alternative perspectives. When schools originally came into existence, it served a very minute population of children. “Modernism was an attempt to create and legitimize educational administration in the newly emerging schools of education at the turn of the last century” (English, 2003, pg. 36). Schools are still running in the same fashion as they did when they came into existence. As the school system is continuing to fail our students and society, it is clear that the modernist theory be abolished. The theory is just reinforcing the status quo, “and we have paid too little attention to improving practice by changing the nature of our theories” (English, 2003, pg. 244). The status quo is not a viable option and it must come to an end. Educational leaders are still making decisions in a bureaucratic style, from the top down. Top down management is not always in the best interest of the school. School achievement and success gets lost in bureaucratic policies.
Postmodernist Theory
Postmodernism is an open theoretical framework, understanding that there is more than one answer to a question. “It is about challenging and opening up the central premise that only one set of borders are possible to define and support professional practice” (English, 2003, pg. 3). There are a multitude of responses and ways to be successful in a school setting one just needs to be open to them. This mindset challenges the foundation of the modernist theory. Postmodernism is able to accept that there are multiple views of reality. Possibilities are abundant in the postmodern world, and all options should be explored to find what works best in a particular school. Not all schools are the same; therefore, there is not one solution to make a school better.
An educational leader from the postmodern school of thought will “open up the whole area of leadership to a broader perspective than has usually been the case” (English, 2003, pg. 26). The educational leader is willing to consider all options in order to best serve students. This willingness is not based upon what has worked at other schools, but what could potentially work at the school in question. As schools have progressed to a more inclusive group of children, the public school system must step back and find a way to best serve its population. English (2003) posits that postmodernism frames questions that cut to the heart of the educational field, its intellectual borders and territorial claims as a special place in schools. Postmodernism is the cornerstone of futuristic thinking.
The ultimate question in schools that should be considered is: How can educational leader’s best serve and support students? In these times, this question encompasses the family units as well as the surrounding community. Educational leaders are needed that are able to break the bureaucratic tape and lead schools into the future. “The postmodern position challenges the modernistic conceptual box and its continued efficacy for theory and practice” (English, 2003, pg. 236-237). Education needs someone that can think outside the box and go against the grain. Clearly, what has always been done is not working. Postmodern leadership demands revolutionary ideas and strategies.
Educational leaders need to smash the modernist views and practices to bring schools into current times and prepare them to propel into the future. “There is plenty of evidence that what is going on in schools now is not adequate and that we don’t need better schools, we need different schools” (English, 2003, pg. 239). Our society is changing, and our students are much different than in the past, such as: having both parents that work, an influx of different cultures, and access to drugs and alcohol. It is time for schools to change. “Postmodernism is the first step in removing the constraints of both current theory and practice in educational administration” (English, 2003, pg. 244-245). Educational practices must break free from current methods and go beyond the limits of traditional thoughts.
There is more than one way to skin a cat, but the cat never likes it. There is more than one way to run public schools, but the modernist never likes it. “If we keep on using the same old theories we will continue to get the same old results” (English, 2003, pg. 239). New ideas are crucial to our world, including educational practices. We must allow professionals to use their thinking and leadership abilities to solve problems. In a modernistic educational system our end goal is for all students to learn at the same rate and level. Is this rational? Is this fair to our students? Is this assumption based on scientific evidence? Is it realistic for us to put all children on a path that gets to the same place? In high school the big picture is college. Is every child capable and willing to pursue higher education? Is it right for us to force them in that direction, even if they do not want to go? Some students want to pursue more laborious and technical avenues. Should we not esteem and appreciate these technical skills abilities?
One “knowledge base” is not applicable to students or teachers. Doing the same thing over and over does not impact improvement, especially if it is not working. It is time for something new in education. Educators must be willing to explore new ideas because it is ridiculous to believe that there is only one practice. It is ridiculous to believe that there is one catchall remedy for all problems. It is time to move into the 21st century and realize that there are many problems with schools, and there are a plethora of potential solutions.
There are some educational techniques based on business models. Schools should not be run based on business models. “Business has very little to offer educational management and even less as it pertains to educational leadership” (English, 2003, pg. 241). We need flexible models that can adapt to the changing population of schools. We need models that allow for risk taking. Schools deal with children and their families, they need to be humanized. Families and community members must feel welcome and comfortable with coming into a school. School administration must cater to families, and all that encompasses. Education is about children; and therefore, should be student focused and oriented.
The postmodern theory comes from three perspectives: metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology. Metaphysics are based on reality and provides a theory for everything that exists and how one perceives things. Epistemology is knowledge and how people gain an understanding of knowledge, this includes sharing knowledge. Epistemology is demonstrated in how stakeholders think and act within a school system. Axiology is values that are imparted by educators and defines proper conduct and is influenced by culture. Axiology is extremely important with adults that are modeling behaviors for young people. Reality, knowledge, and values are the core of postmodern theory.
Listed below are ten recommendations to implement postmodernism into our modernistic school.
Recommendation 1
State testing should not be used for high-stakes assessment, such as graduation
Do gains in student test scores determine the success of teaching and learning? A modernist believes so. Is state mandated testing the best way to determine our students’ progress and learning? Are state tests appropriate for determining whether or not an individual would make a good school leader? I propose that the answer to these questions is a definite NO. Tests are unable to evaluate an individual’s ability to work with people or determine an individual’s work ethic. America has become the melting pot of the world; so it is impossible for one test to effectively determine the growth of individual’s from different backgrounds. “Tests are so incredibly one dimensional measures with a long history of racial, gender and class biases that to use them in the creation of a management culture centered on test score gains is to engage in a recidivism that is anti-democratic, punitive to the poor, and persons of color, and morally reprehensible” (English, 2003, pg. 241). It is very possible for bright and imaginative students to fail tests created to test for expectations set by stereotypical, upper to middle class, white Americans. Not all students are white, middle-class Americans. These expectations are hard to change and mold for modernists because this is the way things have always been done.
Testing promotes conformity, “there has been a steady movement toward results-based reform that includes standards for what students should know and be able to do and high–stakes assessments linked to school sanctions and rewards” (English, 2003, pg. 119). Grade promotion is the intended carrot for students to pass state mandated testing; this enables the states to expect cloned knowledge of all study, which takes away originality and resourcefulness from the schools. If students are not the same, do not have the same backgrounds, do not learn the same, and do not have the same post-high school goals, then why would we expect them to have the same knowledge? “The result will be the continued inability of American schools to deal with issues of social justice, economic inequity and closing the gaps between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have-nots’ which threaten the very existence of the republic” (English, 2003, pg. 120). At this point in time, schools do not have a bright future. While schools are not changing, the student population continues to become more diversified. We owe our children better, they deserve for us to be more adaptive and flexible to meet their needs, than to expect them to conform to our ideals and goals.
Recommendation 2
Schedule courses throughout the school day that is flexible and conducive to learning and teaching
In Texas, the legislature recently passed a law. Starting with the class of 2012 students must graduate with four mathematic and science courses. To accommodate this mandate, schools on seven period days will have to potentially reconfigure the school day to accommodate another math and science. The current schedule will not give flexibility for students that fail, resulting in ineligibility and mandatory summer school. This new condition adds two more credits to graduation requirements. To graduate from high school, in Texas, students will need to earn 26 credits, versus the previous 24 credits.
Why do we want our students to sit through classes all day? When is the best time for students to learn? Block scheduling will allow students to earn eight credits a year, and give a little flexibility for extracurricular eligibility if a student were to fail. This also creates a schedule that has students sitting in classes for approximately 90 minutes, as opposed to the traditional 50 minutes. When taking state exams into consideration, students could potentially be double blocked in core classes and those courses could be schedule for the morning “when research shows they learn best” (Childers & Ireland, 2005, pg. 47). With block scheduling students will have less homework each night because of a lighter course load and students will attend four periods each semester compared to the traditional six to seven periods. This information is extremely crucial to consider when choosing block scheduling in regards to the at-risk student population. Many of these students often times go home to take care of a younger sibling or older family member while a parent is at work, or the student may in fact have to go to work. Block scheduling also reduces the load of the teacher and gives them more instructional time with their students per class meeting. The decision to switch to block scheduling should be made with respect as to what is in the best interest of the teachers and students, not what is cheaper and easier for administration.
Recommendation 3
Not all high school graduates will attend college; so arm interested students with a vocational skill to enable them to be productive in society
Is every student the same? Of course not, so why do we enforce the same requirements with very little flexibility? Why do middle class, white Americans assume that going to college determines self worth? “Approximately 25% of high school students are enrolled in vocational education programs and more than 90% of today’s graduates have completed at least one vocational course. Sixty-three percent of the 20 million students enrolled in vocational education programs are in programs at public secondary schools” (Kritsonis, 2002, pg. 213). Clearly there is a need for schools to support students in learning a trade, just as schools support students to go to college. Students have a desire for vocational programs on high school campuses.
Vocational education provides and prepares students with valuable skills. It offers hands-on experience preparing students to go straight to work after graduation, aides in integrating students from a lower socioeconomic status, and provides “an appropriate curriculum for approximately half of the student body not suited for a more academic program” (Kritsonis, 2002, pg. 213). Schools have the opportunity to prepare students with proficiencies for a career path. Vocational educational tracks also expose students to difficult trades that are available to them. Postmodernists are able to consider vocational education as a respectable option they are willing to support.
Recommendation 4
Measures must be taken to ensure safe schools for all stakeholders
The school’s physical environment and leadership must support teachers and address specific challenges that students face. The school “environment must be conducive to teaching and learning” (Kritsonis, 2002, pg. 11). In order for learning to thrive, staff and students must feel safe. The school environment should be virtually free of drugs, violence, sexual harassment, bullying, etc. Dress code ought to be enforced and consistent discipline to inappropriate behaviors is a must.
Paying attention to certain behaviors will help detect signs of potential violence. Kritsonis (2002) lists several warning signs that cause alarm: students that are withdrawn are bullied, have dropping grades, aggressive writings and/or drawings, uncontrolled anger, impulsive hitting or intimidation behaviors, discipline problems, drug and/or alcohol abuse, affiliation with gangs, and making serious threats of violence. From the custodial staff to the students, all must learn to respect the rights and dignity of each human being, learn to work through conflicts without violence, allow all individuals to learn, and provide social equality. There should also be well-systemized measures for people coming onto the campus from the community, whether it is parents or deliverymen. Procedures must absolutely be in place in case of an evacuation, lock down, tornado, fire, etc are required.
Unfortunately, with the happenings of Columbine, Jonesboro, and most recently Virginia Tech, schools have developed a heightened sense of possible school violence. Although it is impossible to predict a violent act in a school, it is essential to take the necessary precautions in case something was to happen. Having a plan of action, such as a lockdown, is a obligatory safeguard to have in place if there were an emergency. Keeping a school safe is much more involved than just organizing a lockdown. A safe school also consists of nurturing a welcoming environment that all staff and students are proud of and appreciate.
Recommendation 5
Teaching requires individuality and creativity; therefore, take your time to hire the best
You want your school to be thriving, hire staff that is intelligent, inventive, reliable, possess strong morals and values, and have a heart for children. “Educators must be aware of the past trends and maintain efforts to improve students’ scores” (Kritsonis, 2002, pg. 213). The one size fits all lesson plan is not appropriate in a postmodern school because not all teachers are the same, just as not all students are the same. Students should not be expected to learn the same; similarly, teachers should not be expected to teach the same. Every teacher has his or her own personality and style to bring to the classroom and to the curriculum. All administration and staff should support this individualism.
Those on the hiring committee are obligated to take precise steps in hiring high-quality staff. People are needed that have a enjoy working with children, are creative, hard working, and dedicated to success. When a team of people works together with the same goal in mind, the odds of success increase greatly. All the people in the school must work together for a collective achievement, and it is the responsibility of the leaders to get those people working in the building.
Recommendation 6
An inviting school culture boosts morale and learning, make everyone that walks through the front door apart of something special
If every type of learner is welcomed, students will be proud of the school. “School cultures need to emphasize respect and acceptance of others” (Ediger, 1997, ¶ 2). Character building, acknowledging and promoting differences, positive interactions need to be fostered inside and outside the classroom. A way to bond the school population is to celebrate differences; examples of this are: Black History Month and Cinco de Mayo. Unique characteristics of cultures can be celebrated through curriculum that penetrates all school staff. Acknowledging people allows for a sense of pride and accomplishment.
It is also vital that staff feels connected to the school. Staff appreciation luncheons, staff input on decisions, and public acknowledgement of staff are a few examples of ways for staff to feel valued and respected. Educators do not get into the profession for prestige and money, but all people feel good when they are patted on the back for a job well done. When people feel good about where they spend a third of their day, morale cannot be anything but high. When teachers enjoy their jobs it extends into the classroom. Happy teachers equate to happy students.
Recommendation 7
Many people are invested in our children’s education since they are the future; involve all stakeholders in the decision-making process
Schools have different student population; therefore, decisions should be based on the context of the situation. From the school leaders to the custodial staff to parents and to the community, all these adults have an invested interest in the success of the school system. When decisions are made, all stakeholders should be involved. Stakeholders are valuable members of the educational system, and their voice is just as important as the educational leaders. Parents are the ones responsible for reinforcing at home, what is going on at school, so the parents should definitely be supportive of what the school is teaching.
Decisions on curriculum should not be based solely on test scores. According to English (2003) he speculates that data-driven decision making is irrational because it does not represent the data field nor is it objective since it exists to support a theory, and that the data contains unambiguous signals regarding meaning which requires subjective interpretation and requires other information to establish context, motivation, and intent. Adults having relationships with students must become a component of the decision making process. “In short, the concept of data-driven decision making ‘dumbs down’ the entire decision making process by blinding the human mind to information which is direct and complex and which deals with the human side of the organization” (English, 2003, pg. 209). Is there something wrong with trying something inventive and new?
Recommendation 8
Give enough support to the student population in order to prevent dropouts
Preventing students from dropping out is a difficult challenge. According to Kritsonis (2002), ways to help prevent student dropouts is to provide support and alternative classes and programs, encourage co-curricular activities and positive group interactions, and work with families. Many of these students have a history of academic failure and truancy issues. Learning how to support the characteristics and needs of at-risk students involves a change in school processes. Many of these students have emotional problems, are involved in drug use, and deal with abusive situations at home. Understanding and support must be given.
Often at-risk students feel isolated from their peers inhibiting them from building supportive relationships. Schools must create opportunities for these students to have bonding experiences. School policies should also be considered when it comes to dealing with these students. Is suspension for truancy the best solution? If a student has missed many days, does it make sense to not allow them to make up work or exams, and give them detention? A postmodernist will find a way to promote caring, concern, and a way to respond to the needs and problems of these students. Small alternative campuses can be a successful answer. With a smaller setting, these students get more one on one attention. “A tremendous amount of time and effort are required from all school personnel and family members to keep dropouts in school” (Kritsonis, 2002, pg. 210). These students must realize that the school system cares for them, and the school must find ways to prove that caring.
Recommendation 9
Extracurricular activities give students a way to connect to the school and bring pride to the establishment
All students deserve to have the opportunity to participate in extracurricular activities. They should be encouraged and supported to try new things. Transportation is sometimes an issue for schools, but it needs to become a non-issue. Transportation should be provided not only for extracurricular activities such as athletics, but for other activities such as tutoring. (Support is a necessity to give to students when they miss school.)
Students should also be acknowledged publicly to encourage the community to also be supportive. When the students are involved, and acknowledged, for representing their school and district it gives them a sense of ownership. They need to have the opportunity to participate in something outside of their educational dwelling.
Recommendation 10
Appropriate staff development is a necessity that equips staff with tools to work with the changing student population
Educators want to strive to be the best they can. Staff development must give educators tools so they improve their craft. “Staff development should be consistent with a school and district’s goals, mission statements, and long-range plans, and the emerging needs of its students and teachers” (Hannon, 2003, ¶ 5). Building on existing knowledge and skills is also an important fact to consider when choosing staff development. Ask teachers and staff what they want, what they need, and if it is not what you were thinking, be flexible. Staff members want to attend trainings that are meaningful and beneficial to them. “Staff should feel that opportunities to improve are worthwhile” (Hannon, 2003, ¶ 10). Their time is just as important as the principal’s.
All faculty need staff development to learn how to handle the influx of students. The school population is becoming more and more diversified, and it is imperative staff know how to make connections. Staff development should be more encompassing than just classroom issues; it should also address non-curricular matters. Today more and more students come to school pregnant, abused, hungry, poor, on drugs, homeless, mentally ill, etc. Developing relationships with students sends the message of caring. Not all adults have the skills to build relationships, but all can learn some techniques that make communication easier.
Enabling professionals to give students coping skills, may in turn impact curriculum. “The knowledge and improved teaching skills gained through staff development make teaching and learning more interesting and result in increased student achievement” (Hannon, 2003, ¶ 1). If students are able to focus on schoolwork, they will be more successful. Give the staff a voice in how to better nurture students and aid them in attaining their basic needs. Staff need help and support for gaining skills that will improve their relationships with their students. Strategies must be developed, which means there must be funding, to find ways to support these students. Campus principals should be constantly seeking ways to advance conditions in the classroom and on their campuses.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, implementing postmodernism forces schools, and its’ stakeholders, to accept more than one solution to its problems. Adjustments are necessary to creative, positive, and successful change. According to English (2003) there are no ideas and standards that are absolute. Educational leaders must look at their schools and its population. Decisions must be made that are best for individual campuses, and not copycat what the school down the street is doing. “There can be no one ‘right’ meaning and whatever meaning is discerned is temporary and not likely to be infinitely stable” (English, 2003, pg. 13). Leaders need to do, what they need to do in their own way. New thoughts, ideas, and attitudes should be explored and put into practice. The postmodern theory allows leaders to make decisions without limits.
Reference
Childers, G. L., & Ireland, R. W. (2005). Mixing block and traditional scheduling.
Principal Leadership 6. Retrieved April 12, 2007, from the Academic Search Premier database.
Ediger, M. (1997). Improving the school culture. Education 97(118). Retrieved April 13,
2007, from the Academic Search Premier database.
English, F. W. (2003). The postmodern challenge to the theory and practice of
educational administration. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publisher LTD.
Hannon, S. M. (2003). Building a better staff. School Library Journal 49(2). Retrieved
April 13, 2007, from the Academic Search Premier database.
Kritsonis, W. A. (2002). William kritsonis, phd on schooling. Mansfield, Ohio: Book
Masters, Inc.
See: www.nationalforum.com
Applied Educational Research Journal (AERJ)
22 (3) 2009
Writing for Professional Publication in Refereed Journals at the National Level in Education
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor
Doctor of Philosophy Program in Educational Leadership
College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
Central Washington University
College of Education and Professional Studies
________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
This article contains practical advice on how to get published in professional journals. The contributing writers have almost 600 years combined experience in professional education. Because of their strengths and success in publishing, all were asked – independently of one another – to succinctly state advice on getting published at the national level. The article offers individual guidance, assistance, and direction in writing for professional publication in refereed, peer-reviewed, blind-reviewed, juried, academic and scholarly journals.
See: www.nationalforum.com
_______________________________________________________________________
Introduction
There will always be an expectation that certain members of the academic community contribute to the body of professional and technical literature in their respective fields. Most of this activity is focused at large research universities in which faculties have been recruited on the basis of their being producing publishing scholars, or at the junior ranks, have the promise of becoming such professionals.
Currently, second, third, and fourth tier colleges and universities are placing increased pressure on faculty to be more productive publishing scholars. While the expectation has not reached the proportions of “publish or perish” – given tenure, due process, and admitted heavy teaching loads – many institutions are establishing what amounts to a “publish or prosper” stance.
Most institutions in higher education initiating this kind of publishing expectation are meeting with mixed success, and in some cases, extraordinary resistance from faculties. The faculties say that the universities expect scholarly productivity, yet do little to support these kinds of efforts with released time, secretarial assistance, graduate students, money for various expenses, merit pay, and salary differentials. Concerning publishing expectations in higher education, one of the most challenging and difficulty tasks is for faculties to publish in national refereed journals.
While the debate is expected to continue indefinitely, the reality is that more faculty will need to acquire the knowledge and skills required in successfully writing for professional publication. Many others – including some educators at the K-12 and community college level – want to become more proficient as producing publishing scholars. Whatever the motivation, few undergraduate or graduate students experience formal programs that provide them the depth education and training necessary to become highly skilled in the publication enterprise.
Purpose of the Article
The contributing writers in this article have almost 600 years of combined experience in the professional education arena. Among them they have produced approximately 1500 publications of various types. Because of their strengths and successes in the area of publication, all were asked – independently of one another – to succinctly state their 10 or 12 best prices of advice on getting published.
While it is was expected that there would be some overlap, there is a high degree of variation among the six contributors. Each has a point of view that differs from the others. All have something to offer to the serious person who wishes to meet with success in writing for professional publication.
Dr. Fenwick W. English
R. Wendell Eaves Distinguished Professor of Educational Leadership
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
1. Study the publication to which you desire to submit your manuscript.
2. Don’t submit manuscripts blindly without knowing what that journal usually publishes.
3. Know something about the journal’s reviewers, their backgrounds, and scholarship.
4. Don’t be sloppy. Before submitting your manuscript be sure it adheres to all the stipulations and standards outlined for that journal.
5. Some journals are for primarily an academic audience. Others are for practitioners. They are different. Standards of evidence are different.
6. All journals are not the same. Know the differences.
Dr. Jeanne Marcum Gerlach
Associate Vice President for K-16 and Dean
College of Education
The University of Texas at Arlington
1. Be sure to narrow your focus for the article. One article cannot report substantively on five or six questions.
2. The author should have a clear theoretical framework to support the study.
3. The author should review relevant literature to support the study.
4. Be sure to define and operationalize key terms.
5. The author should provide a rational for the study itself, not just the methodology used in the work.
6. Be sure to provide a theoretical framework which will guide the interpretation of the data garnered for the study.
7. Be careful not to confuse quantitative research terminology with qualitative research terminology.
8. The author should give a rationale for the population being studied.
9. The author should provide independent checks on the coding system and analysis.
10. Be sure to provide an analysis and interpretation of the data.
11. Be sure you draw conclusions that could not have been drawn without the research.
12. Be sure the conclusions are justified by the data.
Dr. John J. Chiodo
Professor of Education
The University of Oklahoma
Co- editor of Action in Teacher Education
1. Read, read, read. The more you know about a topic the better your own research will be.
2. If you see your idea for an article published in a variety of journals, chances are editors of journals will no longer be interested in it when you finish your manuscript.
3. Get a copy of Cabell’s Directory for Publishing Opportunities in Education and Curriculum. Beaumont, TX: Cabell Pub. Co. 2005 and study the requirements for the journal(s) you are thinking about as possible outlets for your manuscript.
4. Have several journals in mind when you start writing your manuscript.
5. Don’t think about writing, set up a schedule and just do it!
6. There are descriptive articles and research based articles that are published. Generally speaking it seems that editors are more interested in research based manuscripts.
7. Good introduction and good conclusions make for good articles.
8. Be creative in your research. Look at a topic in a different way or combine ideas from previous research.
9. Know your research methodology. Poor research methodology will cause an editor to quickly reject your manuscript.
10. Everyone get rejections. Sulk for a day and then get back and learn from the comments. Reviewers have a lot of experience and they took the time to comment on your manuscript. Use their comments in the revision process.
11. Revise, revise, and revise.
Dr. Rosemary Papalewis
Endowed Professor
Northern Arizona University
Flagstaff, AZ
The scholarship for teaching translates into a series of practices for your professional career path. Outstanding teaching is not maintained without research writing, presentations at conferences and publishing. Being a professor requires not only active consumption skills of research, but also active publications skills which contribute to the body knowledge in your particular area.
I define scholarship publishing as two areas: research based and position pieces. Research based is writing which reports your active lines of research. When I was mentored into the professorate, I was advised to always have three lines of research going. Position pieces, otherwise know as “binder and fillers” for the vitae/RTP are pieces where you express an opinion (validated by other literature, of course) or idea, or describe a model you have developed (again, validated by literature). In the long-term, research based publishing is the writing to strive for, as it validates your right to express yourself in position pieces.
Research based scholarship insures your on-going contribution to the knowledge base. As you found from completing your dissertation, you probably had 5 more studies you could have followed up on (and, hopefully you will/did). Answering questions in your lines of research should continue to generate on-going study.
I recommend the following tips:
1. Overall, write always planning to publish it!
2. Always do a presentation with a written paper ready.
3. In preparing the written paper, identify at least 3 referred journals you can submit to (making sure they all use the same writing style, i.e., APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).
4. Choose refereed journal with fairly quick turn around.
5. Always email or phone the editor to ascertain interest in your topic.
6. Always present from your “draft” and immediately clean up your paper following your presentation, based on any feedback received.
7. Submit your paper to the first journal; if revisions are requested (usually) pick and choose which revisions make sense to you. Don’t become disheartened with this process!
8. If rejected, reviews comments and change as indicated. If no comments were made, submit to the second journal you had already identified. Usually by the third journal your article will be picked up for publication (as in, third times’ a charm!).
9. Co-authoring is a good way to “learn the ropes”. So, find a Mentor that publishes. Find a Mentor that publishes research based studies. Approach the “mature faculty” and ask them what they are publishing, and what their research lines are. Ask to be included.
10. Develop rough drafts and share them. Rule of thumb, pen to paper means you have a second or third author.
11. Become a juror to a refereed journal.
12. Become active in your professional organizations, to serve as a reader to their conference proposals.
13. Chair dissertation/theses’ committees, with as thought towards publishing with your students.
14. Try to find ways to use your classes/field work students in data collection activities.
Beyond novice level, the ultimate scholar-practitioner continues to research, write, present and publish, thus continuing to improve their teaching. Given this, I recommend the following tips:
1. Begin to shoot for the top journals in your field, those that may take a year or longer to read and react to your paper.
2. At this point, your goal is not numbers of publications, but serious addition to the knowledge base.
3. Write that book you may have always wanted to.
4. Mentor novice professors in the art of publication.
5. Actively involve novice professors in presentations.
Overall, there is no substitute for writing and staying in practice. The more you write the better a writer you will become. Find your own “ebb and flow” and guarantee yourself some writing time. Write weekly, with a certain day and time reserved. Set goals of how many articles you intend to submit per year. Review your state and national presentation possibilities and frame your writing around these. My tendency is to write for presentations during the semester (usually under time duress) and then rewrite for publication during winter and summer break. Good luck.
Dr. Jeffrey N. Weatherly
Professor and Chair of the Department of Psychology
University of North Dakota
1. Know your outlet. Different journals have different readerships and different standards. If you publish your work in only a few journals or only in low-tiered journals, then your work will have little impact on the field.
2. Prepare a good manuscript. Reviewers and editors will always have comments and suggestions for improvement no matter how well you prepare a paper. However, few reviewers or editors get compensated for their time. A poorly prepared paper will do little to make them positively inclined toward your work. If you do not care enough about it to prepare it properly, why should they?
3. Be conservative and open to other interpretations. You undoubtedly have an opinion about the conclusions that should be drawn from your paper. It is a rare paper, however, that can counter every possible alternative explanation. If alternatives exist, you should acknowledge them.
4. Do not take criticism personally. Few reviewers or editors will be unprofessional enough to make comments of a personal nature. Critiques of your work should be seen as opportunities for improvement. Many times, the suggested revisions to your paper will result in a stronger piece of work than the original. Sometimes, the suggestions will be on things you believe you have already addressed in the paper. If that is the case, then you obviously have not addressed them well enough. Go back and do a better job of it.
5. Expect rejection. No scholar will ever get every paper accepted the first time around. Rejection is part of the process. Take the reviewers' and editor's comments into account, decide if the paper's faults can be fixed, and, if they can, submit the paper to another journal.
6. Submit your work. I have had colleagues who will spend weeks revising single paragraphs. These individuals are then devastated months later when the paper is not accepted. Prepare a good paper and then submit it. Sometimes the best and strongest changes are made to a paper after its initial review.
Dr. Richard Blackbourn
Dean of the College of Education
Mississippi State University
1. Research various journals in your field. Some may be more in line with your personal research agenda than others. They also may be thematic in nature which is important in determining how your research "fits" into their emphases.
2. Make personal contacts with editors. This can be done via email, telephone, or face to face at professional meetings. Obviously, one would not "pester" an editor, but editors being able to put a face with a name can sometimes be of help.
3. Collaborate with others. Although there is certainly a time and place for solo authorship, working with others can often produce a better product and help individuals stay on the task of writing.
4. Use conference presentations as opportunities to have your writing critiqued. While criticism is sometimes unpleasant, comments from your audience can help you hone your research into a better quality publication.
5. Encourage others to read and critique your work. This allows you to benefit from the expertise of others and allows the reader to "spot" things you might not catch.
Dr. Barry S. Davidson
Department of Psychology, Counseling and Foundation
Education at Troy University
1. Keep thinking about writing.
2. Reflect on the topic you are considering researching for publication.
3. Contact prospective editors of journals to see what special topics may be highlighted as theme issues in the near future.
4. List all your ideas, wait awhile, and later organize your thoughts into sentences and paragraphs.
5. Set aside time to write daily. Maintain a writing schedule and adhere to it.
6. Consider co-authoring with a colleague to balance perspectives on sensitive subjects.
7. Ponder the advantages of forwarding your article to several readers at various institutions prior to submission to the editorial board.
8. Be willing to rewrite more drafts prior to submission to the editor of the journal you have selected to review your research.
9. Ask questions of established authors.
10. Remember to keep a positive attitude during the writing process.
Dr. Gerald J. Calais
Associate Professor
Department of Teacher Education
McNeese State University
Factors Focusing on Journal Guidelines and Policies
1. Which professional audience do you wish to address? Each journal focuses on the needs of specific groups and their corresponding areas or topics of interest.
2. Are you familiar with the journal’s requirements when submitting your article? Obtain the latest issue of your journal and its “Instructions for Authors” brochure that addresses the journal’s audience, format, style, manuscript preparation style, and review policies.
3. What are the journal’s particular writing style requirements? The following sections are standard: (a) an abstract, (b) a literature review section, (c) a method section, (d) a results section, (e) a discussion section, and (6) a reference section.
Factors Focusing on Editors’ Criteria for Critiquing Manuscripts
1. Is your writing comprehensible or how articulate is your writing? Authors should be able to state the complex as simply and comprehensibly as possible.
2. How significant is your research topic? Provide a rationale early on in your paper stating why you believe your research addresses a significant issue. This skill is developmental: both experience and extensive knowledge are instrumental.
3. Do you truly have a well designed study? Are the method and design of your study appropriate? More specifically, do your questions match the design you have employed? Is your methods section sufficiently detailed to permit replication by others? [Did you precisely describe your selection of subjects, materials, and procedures?]
4. What techniques did you use to present your results or findings? Did you report and analyze your data appropriately and does your data analysis match your research methods?
5. How reliable are your results? How replicable and generalizing are your results?
6. Does your article meet the journal’s rudimentary requirements? This component focuses on a variety of pitfalls that authors should strive to avoid (e.g., spelling errors, outdated literature review, inappropriate citing of references, failure to include descriptive statistics.
Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis
National Research and Manuscript Preparation Editor
National FORUM Journals
1. Find someone who has been successful at getting published. Cultivate a friendship, and solicit their counsel.
2. Make a personal commitment to write something – anything – regularly or at least periodically. But before you make this commitment, make a more important one. Read regularly.
3. Get it into your head that the only people who get published are those who write something.
4. Don’t wait for inspiration. It rarely comes. Set time aside when you write, read, write some more, re-write, revise, read, and so on…
5. Realize that great minds and great writers are not the only ones to get published. If you read, you will learn this. All writing cannot be great. Good is better than much of the manuscripts published.
6. Getting published is a game. Learn the rules. It makes the game more fun and your chances of winning are much better.
7. Start small. Success is the best encouragement. Write a book review, an article for the local paper, find a journal that isn’t swamped with manuscripts, ask you mentor(s) for help, and call or write editors to find out what they want or need.
8. Write about what you know best and what you’re interested in. It helps to have a leg up on the substance of an article; the technical dimensions are hard enough.
9. Technical know-how can’t be bypassed. Use correct English, follow slavishly the style, format, length, and other requirements of the specific publication to which you are submitting, present spotlessly clean, beautifully typed copy, ad write a nice humble letter telling why your manuscript is so wonderful and deserving of publication. Before you send it off, have a least two of the most critical people you know (no friends) review it for anything and everything. It’s always painful, but it usually helps tremendously.
10. One of the best ways to get started is to collaborate with someone – preferably someone who has had success in getting published. This may mean taking second or third co-author, but your day will come.
11. A by-line is more than ample reward for most writers – that is unless you earn your living at it. If you do, you don’t need my advice.
Dr. Robert H. Anderson
Professor Emeritus at the Harvard Graduate School of Education
Dean Emeritus at Texas Tech University
President of Pedamorphosis, Inc.
1. Be sure that the article is about something that excites you.
2. Check out the purposes and the focuses of the journals to be sure your piece deals with the interests of their audiences and their editors.
3. Read the editor’s instructions to authors carefully and abide by them.
4. Don’t trust your typist. Check every word, every reference, and every statistic.
5. Submit clean, crisp, fresh-looking pages. Don’t submit dog-eared, coffee-stained,
messy material.
6. Have a friend check your paper editorially – grammar, spelling, organization, readability, interest level.
7. Don’t quote your own previous writing(s) unless it has a legitimate reason for being there.
8. The first four paragraphs are crucial – if the reader is not hooked by then, he/she won’t stay with it.
9. Have a good, catching, but accurate title. The title is what the reader depends on to know what the article is about.
10. Be sure to submit a stamped return envelope and as many copies as required.
Dr. Karolyn J. Snyder
Professor Emeritus
University of South Florida
President of International School Connection, USA.
1. Have a fresh message to present, one which you can state for yourself in a sentence.
2. Begin an article by stating your message; proceed to develop/present your idea/data, conclude by restating your message.
3. Develop a model, an organizing pictorial representation of the ideas you discuss; use it to introduce the concepts you will develop in your manuscript.
4. Develop a working knowledge of APA and The Chicago manuscript styles.
5. Develop sentences and paragraphs that are succinct and easy to understand.
6. Establish a clear, concise relationship of your work to the current body of knowledge in your field (10-20% of the manuscript.
7. Write for the specific interests of the journal board and its audience.
8. Use scholarly language when writing for research publications (dialogue among scholars), and more practical language for practitioner publications (working concepts for practitioners).
9. Develop a working relationship with a colleague; read and critique each other’s manuscripts before the final copy.
10. Regard the writing and preparation activity as fun.
Dr. Edgar Bennett
Tutor (Professor)
Oriel College
University of Oxford, Oxord, England.
1. Became familiar with the preferred form, style, and formatting of articles published in the journal by closely studying several past issues of the periodical.
2. Keep the problem that is being investigated in the forefront throughout the writing process.
3. Ensure the flow of the manuscript follows a logical sequence of events and meets the test of reasonableness.
4. Write clearly worded, concise statements utilizing vocabulary appropriate to the readership.
5. Use only the latest reported evidence that is pertinent to your thesis as supportive documentation.
6. Generalizations stated should be supported by the sampling and statistical techniques in research articles.
7. Finding no significant difference in a tested hypothesis is within itself a fact worthy of being reported.
8. Substance of the article should be pertinent to identified needs of the profession.
9. Adequate detail should be included to permit replication of the study by other researchers and writers.
10. All graphics, tables, and exhibits should help to clarify the points being made in the written portion of the article.
Dr. John Costakos
Associate Professor Emeritus
California State University at Sacramento
1. Know the publishing ground rules.
2. Decide carefully on the reason/timing of your article.
3. Research and use current quotes in the field and document contributions in the field if possible.
4. Know your audience and your vision.
5. Are you trying to build alliance or promote thought and controversy?
6. If you want to inspire, keep your article upbeat and show optimism.
7. Sell your ideas but keep your ego in check.
8. Be sure your article has value for your audience.
9. Share good news.
10. Have a proactive mindset.
11. Be concise in your observation and reflection of thought.
12. What kind of strategies or ideas can you contribute to influence your audience?
13. Don’t leave any ideas hanging.
14. Express your thoughts with clarity, pose good questions for thought.
15. Keep equity and diversity in mind.
Clarence Johnson
Director of Safe and Secure Schools
Aldine Independent School District (Houston, Texas)
PhD Candidate in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
1. Be an aggressive and eager learner.
2. Have adequate writing skills.
3. Proofread your materials carefully.
4. Focus and write on current local, national and global issues.
5. Stay focused on the topic being written.
6. Follow the format required by the publisher.
7. Give accurate data and research that support your material.
8. Follow the instructions of an excellent mentor.
9. Meet all editorial and publishing deadlines.
10. Think on the “cutting edge” of material being submitted.
Dr. David E. Herrington
Assistant Professor
Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
1. Select and define the purpose of your writing based on current interests of your target audience. Avoid trying to accomplish multiple purposes with multiple audiences. Keep it simple. Identify your audience and topic and stick to it.
2. Outline the article carefully. Let the outline guide, not dictate the direction your writing will take.
3. Plan to start the article with a major point or outcome. Capture the interest of the reader early in the article.
4. Avoid technical jargon. Use simply terminology and vocabulary that is not regional or dated.
5. Keep sentences short and easy to read and comprehend.
6. Provide examples of major points. Build a bridge between the idea and the applicability of the point be emphasized.
7. Write with a specific audience in mind. Define the audience at the inception of the article and keep that audience in mind throughout the development of the article.
8. Write as though you were talking to the audience. Communicate.
9. Avoid being formal. Be down to earth and believable.
10. Make narrative clear, concise, and to the point. Avoid unnecessary verbiage. Don’t strive to impress people with your vocabulary unless that is a requirement of the journal.
11. Select the journal to which the article will be sent with care and precision. Be sure your audience is within their readership.
12. Follow journal guidelines carefully.
13. Set aside your work when you finish. Read it later from a fresh perspective. Accept all criticism no matter how harsh. Be thorough in your editing for simplicity. Eliminate everything that does not contribute to your main purpose.
14. Know your editor well. Be sure to comply with all of her requirements.
Make the editor’s work easier. She will appreciate it.
Dr. Richard A. Hartnett
Chair and Professor
Education Leadership Department
West Virginia University
1. Read the major journals in your field and become familiar with their requirements and topical patterns.
2. Determine whether your study fits their scholarly focus. If not, find alternative outlets for publication.
3. Outline (sentence form is best) your article assiduously to insure unity and cohesiveness.
4. Learn to be a vigilant editor and ask others (particularly experts in the field) to examine your manuscript for style and content. Expect to go through multiple drafts before submission.
5. If reviewers request changes before the article is accepted for publication, follow their advice and identify for the editor the changes you have made based on their corrections.
Dr. Kimberly Griffith
Associate Professor and Editor
The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research
Lamar University
College of Education and Human Development
Department of Professional Pedagogy
Beaumont, Texas
1. Brainstorm ideas for research and possible publication. Look at current journals to see what is current or a “hot” topic. Many also have a “Call for Papers” listing the topics they plan to publish in future editions. Ask professional educational organizations what topics are popular or important issues in their field of education.
2. Think about what interests you. You have to live with the topic until you complete it. If you are not interested in the topic, it will become boring or be difficult to keep on task and complete.
3. Find out if a colleague or another person in the field of education has a project, interest, etc. that you could work on with them.
4. Find out if a textbook company is looking for someone to write a chapter in a textbook. These might be on their website or they might send an email to those on their list-serve.
5. Determine the type of manuscript you want to write. Understand the difference between and “article” and a “manuscript.” A manuscript is work that is submitted for possible publication. An article is a manuscript that has been published. Examples of manuscript types include the following:
o Objective survey of the literature available on a topic
o Analysis of literature to support the author’s viewpoint
o Interpretive paper on a specific theory, concept, etc.
o Theory paper that develops a new conceptual framework
o Research paper - describing the study, participants, results, conclusions, etc.
o Chapter for a textbook (They are the easiest to be accepted since they do not have to go through a blind peer-review process)
o Other types of papers as indicated in the professional journals you read
6. Know what types of manuscripts a journal typically publishes. The library should have current issues for your review. Many can be found online.
7. Review the types of article in several issues of the journal. Do they accept a variety of topics for publication or do they have a theme for the issue? Read the submission or author guidelines. Many can be found online. Look at the expertise of the members of the editorial board for ideas on their research interests.
8. The acceptance rates of journals can range from 80% to 5%. Look at publishing in journals where the turnaround time may be shorter. Journals which have very high submission rates have high rejection rates. Look at using your time wisely. Don’t “tie up” a manuscript for 18 months if the journal has a low acceptance rate.
9. Ask colleagues to whom journals have they submitted manuscripts. They can give good advice on the “where to” and “where not to” submit.
10. Determine to which journal you will submit your manuscript. It is important to know where you are going to know how to begin the writing process. It is like taking a trip. You can have a well organized vacation by using a map or a “fly by the seat of your pants” experience without the map. You save time, energy and have a greater chance for successful publication by knowing where you are going.
11. Remember research ethics. Only submit your manuscript to one journal at a time. You can submit to another journal if you receive notice that your manuscript will not be published by the editor.)
12. When possible, collaborate in the writing process. A group of two or more can share ideas and the work. Decide on the topic. Decide the role and responsibility of each team member. (Use each other’s talents. Some are better at writing, others at finding the references, others at editing, etc.) Set timelines. Meet on a regular basis to keep each other on task, and make changes as needed.
13. Schedule a time to write every day. Make it automatic. Thirty to ninety minutes a day or at least three times a week. This will help you to stay on target and not get overwhelmed at the last minute when your writing project is due.
14. Develop an outline for your manuscript. You can read the published articles in the journal where you plan to submit and determine what type of outline to develop.
15. Write your introduction and summary first. Most problems are found in these sections. They become a guide to your manuscript (a roadmap)! It will keep you focused on the route you are taking.
16. As you write make sure the manuscript indicate you know what is current on that topic. Make sure to have at least one to two references from the same year you plan to submit your manuscript (a roadmap)! It will keep you focused on the route you are taking.
17. Make sure your manuscript has a solid conceptual basis.
18. Make sure that findings in your conclusion have been substantiated in your paper.
19. When the paper is well organized and near completion have a couple of colleagues review and edit it. Does it make sense to someone else who has read it?
20. Does it follow the publication style? (APA, Chicago, MLA, etc.)
21. Tips for submitting your manuscript after it is completed:
o Make sure you have the exact copies required.
o Write a cover letter with the current editor’s name.
o The cover letter should be neat and a brief description of your manuscript, why you are submitting it and your contact information.
o If an online submission, are all guidelines for submission followed?
o If mailing the manuscript, make sure you have the post office weigh the envelope so you can buy the correct amount for postage.
22. Most editors will document they have received your manuscript through a letter or email. If you do not receive a letter within a couple of weeks documenting that your manuscript was received then call or email the editor to check to see if the manuscript was received. Sometimes forces of nature and accidents do cause a manuscript to be lost.
23. If you get an acceptance letter, GREAT JOB!! If you receive a letter indicating the manuscript was not accepted for publication. Review the editorial comments. Revise and resubmit if the editor indicates this should be done. If you have questions about the comments made by reviews, contact the editor and ask them for clarification. Ask the editor if they have a suggestion for another journal that might be more appropriate. Revise and look at other potential journals for possible publication. Don’t worry; your manuscript might not have been the “right fit” for that journal or the right time to be submitted there. Sometimes a journal receives several manuscripts on the same topic. The topic might be saturated. Look for another journal to submit the manuscript.
24. Take heart in knowing that everyone will get some “rejection” letters. One of your authors had that experience four times on her first manuscript. Although I kept writing other manuscripts and those were being accepted, the first one was rejected four times. On the fifth submission it was published. NEVER GIVE UP, JUST KEEP SEARCHING FOR THE RIGHT JOURNAL.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis
Professor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
1. Survey the entire market for publishing your thoughts. Look at local, state, regional, national and international publishing outlets.
2. If you believe in your thoughts and want others to be aware of them, then write them down and seek a publishing outlet.
3. In order to get practice in writing for professional publication, you must go through the publishing process. Do whatever it takes to get your efforts into print.
4. When editors make comments about your writing, take what they say seriously and do exactly what they say.
5. When an editor takes the time to tell you what needs to be done in order to get your manuscript published, do it.
6. Start off with small publication outlets in order to gain writing experience. You need to get experience relative to identifying particular publications and the types of manuscript they want to publish.
7. Write, write, write, and write. Don’t talk about writing, do it! The hardest thing to do is to sit by you and write.
8. After you have submitted a manuscript for professional publication, make certain you write a follow-up letter to the editor checking on the progress of the manuscript. This follow-up letter should be written about two or three weeks after the first submission. Write another follow-up letter a month later or at a time a decision should have been reached relative to publishing the manuscript.
9. Use the telephone. Call the editor at his office or home. You have already invested much time and effort in writing the manuscript. You have invested time in your formal and informal education. Now, invest in a telephone call relative to seeking the status of the manuscript. If the editor appears to be negative, ask him or her what needs to be done to make the manuscript acceptable. If she or he is too negative, withdraw the manuscript.
10. Get to know others who have been published and take their advice. Implement their suggestions. You learn a great deal of by talking and networking with successful colleagues who have learned how to publish.
11. Another tactic is as follows. At the time you submit a manuscript, prepare three separate envelopes to three separate journals. Send your manuscript to the top journal of your choice. If your manuscript is rejected, send it to the first alternative journal – you have already prepared the envelope. If your manuscript is rejected again, send it to the second alternative – you have already prepared the envelope.. If you manuscript is again rejected, send it to the third alternative - you have already prepared the envelope. If it is rejected again, do a complete rewrite of the manuscript and resubmit to the journal of your first choice and start the process all over again.
Dr. Norman L. Butler
Lecturer in English
AGH University of Science and Technology
Cracow, Poland
1. Try to publish in different journals. This will add to your credibility.
2. Do not be defensive about your work. Welcome criticism.
3. Online publications are more flexible than traditional ones.
4. Offer your services as a reviewer in order to get a better understanding of the publishing process.
Dr. Linda A. Larson
Assistant Professor
Department of Educational Leadership and Instructional Technology
McNeese State University
"If you do not write for publication, there is little point in writing at all.”
—George Bernard Shaw
1. Find out who publishes in your field: Make sure you are sending your manuscript to a publisher who is interested in your type of article or book. Carefully review previous publications in the area you are targeting. If in doubt, contact the publisher. A great way to find out if a publisher is interested in your topic is to inquire. Many publishers attend professional conferences and they are usually happy to talk to you about your idea and tell you honestly if they would be interested in publishing an article or book on your topic. If you are looking for publishers another place to try is the AAUP directory or this web site www.aaupnet.org. Make sure to contact the editor and write to that person.
2. If you are a freshly minted PhD abandon the structure of the dissertation. Do not over document your article. Show your mastery of the literature on the topics. Be concise. Share the most interesting aspects of your research.
3. Select a good title: A title should always catch the eye and entice the reader to read the article. An article that is written well can fail to be published if the title does not match the quality of the article. When you are writing the title, be sure you do not get so creative that the reader does not clearly understand the context of the article or book.
4. Be persistent and set writing goals. A single article may not get you published. . The marketplace is very unpredictable. Put yourself on a schedule to write one article a month or one article per week, and then follow through with your plans. If you do not write, you cannot get published. Numerous articles in the marketplace are more valuable than one lone article. The more articles you have in circulation, the easier it is to get published. If You keep writing, in a few years you will find that you have become a scholar in your field and that people will seek you out to offer you new opportunities for publications and presentations. Timing is important. Find out if a particular journal is featuring "theme issues" and try to tie your ideas into the theme. Doing this can increase your chances of acceptance and, perhaps, move up the date of publication.
5. This can be important in the RTP process. Read and following the rules:. In every professional journal, you will find a section that describes how to prepare your manuscript. Failure to "follow the rules" can mean rejection, time delays or the need for substantial revision.
6. Critically Review Your Article Before Submission. Even the most careful writer is bound to make spelling, and grammatical, errors. As a writer you can get so close to your manuscript that we are unaware that some of your ideas may be unclear because you are too close to the material Get several people to critique your manuscript before you send it to a journal.
Dr. Christopher Frost
San Diego State University
Associate Dean of Undergraduate Studies
Note: “Contrarian approach to publishing” follows.
1. The act of writing should be embedded in thinking, so a prerequisite to publishing is to “have something to say.” (Too many of the “tidbits to publishing” are addressed to those “who have to say something,” and many of the tips implicitly proffer “style and adherence to guidelines” over substance.) My contrarian principle suggests that a budding author needs to read prolifically, engage in deliberate dialogue, reflect on readings and conversations, and then follow with intentional writing embedded in reflection.
2. As an author develops a manuscript, she should continue the interpersonal stimulation by asking informed readers to read early drafts, and to respond to them. Although grammar, word choice, publication style and the like can be included, the primary emphasis here should be on the substance of the piece. Although an author should value the comments, suggestions, and edits, he should maintain final authority over the work (the “author” in “authority”). Adhering to whatever a reviewer or editor requests of you may get you published, but why publish something under your name if it does not reflect precisely what you have to say? My approach is to choose the right to select and to reject publishers, and not simply to think in terms of a publisher’s right to reject submitted work.
3. Once an author has a fairly developed manuscript on a meaningful subject in reasonably good form, then she can legitimately seek a publication source of good fit. One way to begin, of course, is to attend to publishers of articles, chapters, and books that have stimulated your thinking on the manuscript’s topic. Beyond that, however, there is a very important tool to rely on, especially if you are publishing in arenas where “multiple submissions” are prohibited: the query letter. A well-written query letter can lead you to the publisher of “best fit” far more effectively than almost any other avenue. Simply put, you write letters to editors of journals or publishers that might possibly be interested in your manuscript. You describe your work, rationale, methods, etc., and if the manuscript is a book manuscript, include a sample chapter or two. (There are Writer’s Guides that can provide specifics to guide your queries.) By sending out, say, five query letters as you are beginning to near completion of your manuscript you should discover who is interested in your work at the outset.
Dr. Ben C. DeSpain
Professor
Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling
Prairie View A & M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
1. For the true neophyte or the junior professor just starting to publish, choose a topic of interest to you with multiple options for use. One of biggest hurdles to overcome is that writing and publishing is “something else” a professor must do. It is not something else; it is a vital part of what you do. It helps if the topic and the subsequent publication can also be used as a lecture for a course you teach or for a conference presentation, or even as the basis of a future chapter in a book.
2. Take a few minutes, up to 30 minutes, each day—every day—to think in a pleasant location. Always keep a small note pad handy to jot down ideas that make you curious. During the think time, practice posing good questions that cause you to wonder. Use them later as a start on a research or writing effort.
3. Read daily from several types of books and journals. Practice copying or clipping good thoughts and articles and file them in a carefully developed system for easy retrieval. This caldron of good thoughts and ideas should be revisited on a regular basis as you develop a list of topics for further consideration, research, and possible writing.
4. Pay close attention to what others are writing and to current topics of concern and interest in your field. Be sure to read multiple authors on those topics. During your think time consider what others have not said, or not said well, or even where they disagree.
5. Develop acquaintances who are editors of journals. They often face deadlines and are occasionally short on good material. Find out their future plans for theme editions of their publication. Let them know your interests and see if they have a particular twist on as idea you have that they would like to see developed.
6. Find a mentor who will drive, drag, push, pull, or roll you across the finish line to completion of a manuscript and see that it becomes a published article. That person is your ticket to success as a writer, cherish his/her friendship!
7. Schedule regular times each week to write. One hour each Saturday will yield a book of 150-200 pages each year. Devote at least one full day each week to research, reading, and writing. Such activities are considered by many as at least 1/3 of your professional life and job. Treat it like you think it is, because it is!
8. Develop a good title, and write a good succinct outline, along with a solid abstract. Always use these three tools to keep you focused and to guide your writing.
9. Don’t take yourself too seriously. Say what you have to say in a consumable way that is more about communication than about scholarship. Learn to say things well first, and then scholarly sophistication will come later, if you feel is essential.
10. Have a good editor, preferably outside your close friends, who will be brutally honest. It will help soften the sting of a letter of rejection later.
11. Pay attention to the details of what the editor asks for in the submission guidelines. Also pay close attention to what the rejection letters say and heed the advice.
12. Alternate your writing targets. Often hard copy journals may have months pass after acceptance before the article appears in print. Electronic journals are generally faster to publication. Once you start publishing, submit articles to both medium so that you are reaching both audiences and are appearing in print on a regular basis. This is a huge boos for your morale.
13. Schedule an intense writing week each year with a colleague, coauthor, or mentor. Resolve to complete at lest 3 manuscripts during the week. You may need to work up to a week long session by doing a weekend session or two before trying for the week. Use the break time between semesters or before or after summer school. After an intense session of a week of work, take a well deserved break for the balance of the vacation. You will enjoy the vacation more knowing that you have accomplished a goal.
Dr. Max Malikow
Associate Professor of Psychology
Syracuse University
Renee Crown Honors Program
Syracuse, New York
Author: Living When a Young Friend Commits Suicide (Beacon Press, 1999, co-authored
with Dr. Earl A. Grollman)
Teachers for Life: Advice and Methods Gathered Along the Way (Rowman and
Littlefield, 2006)
Profiles in Character: Fifty Stories that Will Instruct and Inspire Teenagers
(University Press of America, publication date: December, 2006)
1. Accept the reality that writing for publication will require manuscript revisions, both before and after submission.
2. Writing is a work of human service. From start to finish be mindful of to whom you are writing and the benefit you hope your work will provide. In this vein, understand that your writing is neither an opportunity to show how much you know nor how well you write. The display of your expertise and talent will be byproducts of accomplishing a written work for the sake of others.
3. Write with a dictionary at your side. Make every effort to use the perfect word for every thought you want to communicate.
4. Write economically; the adage “less is more” applies to writing.
5. When citing, use recognized authorities and contemporary books and articles as references.
6. Have passion for your subject. Locate the fire that burns within you. It is close to impossible to be interesting when you are not interested.
7. Enrich your manuscript with relevant, memorable quotations, especially from influential individuals. (It is not what is said, but who says it that impresses readers.)
8. Establish a routine for writing. Many writers write early in the morning for a fixed period and follow a schedule of so many pages per day.
9. Before submission, have your work read by people who are knowledgeable in your subject and others who are representative of the audience you intend to reach. Set aside your ego and take seriously what they say about your manuscript.
10. Be deliberate in selecting a journal for submission. An excellent manuscript will be rejected by an inappropriate journal. The time invested in research to find the right journal is time well invested.
11. Do not overreact to rejections. You are going to hear “no” more often than “yes,” especially early in your career as a scholar.
Dr. Mark R. Riney
Assistant Professor
West Texas A&M University
Canyon, Texas
As an assistant professor working toward a looming tenure deadline (fall 2007), these are my primary concerns.
1. After selecting a specific journal to submit an article, carefully read a variety of articles published in the given journal, and use them as models.
2. Pay careful attention to the journal’s requirements for submission (e.g., length, font size & type, etc.). This will save you time in that meeting the journal’s specific requirements for submission will eliminate having to resubmit your article.
3. Find a mentor with considerable experience in publishing journal articles. The academy has it own expectations and hidden curriculum, and novice professors often need guidance in becoming enculturated into their new profession.
4. Electronic journals often are able to publish articles more quickly than traditional journals are. Therefore, if your due date for promotion/tenure is approaching, you may want to submit your work to an electronic journal.
5. Because the publishing process frequently takes several months from the initial submission date to the actual date an article is published, try to meet your university’s requirements for scholarly work a year before you actually apply for tenure or promotion.
Dr. James A. Wood
Professor
Sul Ross State University Rio Grande College
Uvalde, Texas
1. Thoroughly document and cite your work.
2. Use appropriate style when writing for a journal, always investigate first.
3. Some journals are thematic, so watch for call for manuscript notices.
4. Write about topics where you have expertise.
5. Proofread your work or get others to proofread before submitting.
6. Always do an outline and rough draft when writing.
7. Taylor your manuscript to meet the needs of the publisher and don't be afraid to change the title.
8. Try to find a "catchy" title, something that will grab the reader's attention, but still fit the article.
9. Your level of vocabulary should match that of the audience. If you are writing for a research journal it is appropriate to use research terminology.
10. Consider co-authoring if you are good at writing or data analysis
Dr. Judy Johnson
Associate Professor
Educational Administration and Supervision
University of Arkansas at Little Rock
1. Professional Protocol. (as noted in other areas) You must understand the game if you are to play to win.
2. You cannot learn to write, and write well, unless you practice. And then you're not going to master the skill until you accept criticism, rejection, and revision; then and only then, will you excel, master the craft, and achieve your goals.
3. Priorities and Purpose. Write with a passion and a purpose. Find a topic, an issue, a subject that strikes a chord in your heart and soul; then the writing will take shape more easily, more effectively, and more economically. You will write with directness and focus if you have a purpose and have a passion about the subject.
4. Pragmatic Reality. The hardest lesson in life to learn for some of us is that everyone isn't going to be nice, professional, and ethical. It's the same with your writing; not everyone is going to like it. Get over it. Write because you have something to say that needs to be said not to get people to like it.
5. Tie your research to your experience.
6. Read Read Read - then learn from the best.
7. Excel in your professionalism -- check everything twice (and then have someone else review for accuracy)
8. Write for children -- educators touch the hearts and souls of children whom they shall never see -- your writing should be such that you KNOW someone somewhere will benefit from what you say, and then improve education accordingly (that's just Judy . . .)
9. Quitting -- not an option.
(The actual presentation was called “Minding Your P’s and Q’s.” That’s a bit simplistic for your journal, but I did like some of the pieces within the workshop.)
Dr. Gwen Williams Dr. Bernadette Kelley Associate Professor Assistant Professor
West Texas A&M University Florida A&M University
1. Identify Topic or Idea
o Topic not in literature
o Professional & personal experiences
o Professional & personal strengths
o School & work projects
o Current professional issues & trends
o Comments from colleagues
2. Research the Past
o Confirm & clarify topic/idea
o Conduct “snapshot” journal review
o Review the literature
o Develop a new perspective
o Note journals that publish topic
3. Define Your Readers
o Establish a perspective & focus
o Educators?
o Clinicians?
o Administrators?
o Researchers?
o Students?
o Lay Community?
4. Target Specific Journals
o Develop strategic plan for journal market
o Research journal characteristics
o Circulation, issues, & pages
o Query letter
o Type of articles & readers
o Review process
o Acceptance rate
o Timeline > submission, decision, & publish
o Select 3 journals & prioritize them
o Obtain “Author Guidelines”
o Identify sample articles
5. Refine Your Focus with Outcomes and Outlines
o Develop purpose and 2 - 3 key objectives
o Draft an outline
o Model after sample articles
6. Contact Prospective Editors
o Develop a one-page query letter (example)
o Use various communication approaches
o Contact editors (can send query letter to all)
o Address editor by name
7. Plan and Prioritize
o Select your first journal to target
o Prepare draft accordingly
o Keep to promised timeline
o Ask colleagues to review draft
o Use manuscript review checklist
8. Prepare and Submit
o Start with ideas > gradually expand outline
o Focus on content > later grammar
o Develop creative title (key words)
o Follow specific author guidelines
o Create visuals, tables, & figures
o Develop cover letter
o Maintain a file
o Authorship: “contribute significantly in conception and design, critical suggestions and advice, data analysis, and the writing of a manuscript”
o Decide order of authors
o Deal with ethical issues
o Submit manuscript to only ONE journal
9. Deal with the Outcome
o Outcomes: Accept, Accept with Revisions, or Reject
o Respond quickly to reviewer comments
o Perceive rejection as “extra” critique
o Avoid emotional reactions
o Contact editor for questions
o Move on > send to 2nd journal
10. Celebrate!
o E-mail colleagues
o Post on bulletin board
o Share with alumni
o Mentor colleagues & students
o Develop a support group
11. More Tips for Writing for Journals: Just Ponder This.
o Why the issue is important
o How this work relates to other work
o Where it sits in the theoretical context
o How this work is different
o The news - what has been done and how it has been done
o Reflection on its importance
o “You need an angle" - new, different, relevant, important
o Always get a colleague to review the paper
o Use the reviewers’ comments to re-write the article - keep plugging away
o The luck of the draw on reviewers - it is not predictable
o Aim high, and then lower your sights
Teresa Ann Hughes, PhD
First Recipient of PhD in Educational Leadership at PVAMU, December, 2006
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
1. Befriend colleagues who have been published and listen to their suggestions and advice.
2. Co-Author with experienced writers.
3. Become familiar with the different venues for publication.
4. Have an eye for detail. Follow protocol for submissions and do not deviate.
5. Stay abreast of current topics and issues in your area of interest.
6. Read, Read, Read.
7. Write, Write, Write.
8. Edit, Edit, Edit.
9. Have a title that incites curiosity.
10. Let your passion about the topic come alive through your words.
11. Finally, be persistent, have patience, and always persevere.
Dr. Andrew J. Waskey
Associate Professor of Social Science
Social Science Division
Dalton State College
Editor for ABC-CLIO’s Forthcoming Twenty-One Volume of the
Encyclopedia of World History
(Author of over 300 encyclopedia articles)
Writing for Journal Articles, Book Reviews, or Books
1. Be factually accurate. Sloppy work is unprofessional, unscholarly and inexcusable.
2. Be grammatically exact. Write clearly and accurately. Master the rules of English grammar.
3. Be on time. Strictly adhere to all deadlines. Tardy writers disrupt the flow of the publisher’s work, get bad reputations, and lose future opportunities for writing.
4. Be stylish. Study the publisher’s style sheet thoroughly and strictly adhere to it. There are over a thousand style sheets in use. They vary in the details. Know the differences.
5. Be honest. Plagiarism is stealing someone else’s work. Let it not be due to sloppy handing of ideas, resources or wording. Know the fair use published material. If some fact is referenced in three or more sources it can be considered as common knowledge.
6. Absolutely do not copy material from the internet. If previously published material is used re-write it until it is fresh and original. Do this even if it is something one has previously published, because it creates copy right issues. Otherwise get permission.
7. Be warned. Publishers today are using plagiarism checkers to cover themselves.
8. Be brief. If an assignment is for an exact number of words deliver exactly that number—no more and no less.
9. Be polished. Overwriting and then grinding and polishing the article down to the exact number of words produces better quality word.
10. Be simple. Use simple sentences. Reduce long complicated sentences to increase clarity.
11. Be fussy. Fuss over every single word. What does it mean? How does it sound?
12. Be strong. Writing is hard work. Just four or five hundred good words a day is excellent production. It requires disciplined sweat.
13. Be organized. Have a system for organizing materials, filing finished articles and research materials. Editor can have a question(s) about some point months later. Research materials can be easily referenced if kept in an organized manner.
14. Be happy. When published rejoice!
Yolanda E. Smith
PhD Student in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
1. Be disciplined. You can become your own worst enemy. Set a schedule that works for you and stick with it.
2. You must be organized. Keep all revisions in the same folder and file them away for later reference if needed. Select a topic that interests you. If you cannot find your topic in articles then you may actually have a research idea that is worthwhile.
3. Find time for yourself; in so doing, fresh ideas will come forth.
4. Find more than one editor to work with. Be open to constructive criticism. Follow directions. It will save you time.
5. Finally, believe in yourself, your capabilities, and most importantly, know your weaknesses and work on them daily.
Joe M. Blackbourn, Jr.
Associate Professor, School of Education
University of Mississippi
Editor, The Record in Educational Leadership
One of my colleagues was once told by another professor that, “Publishing and the publish or perish mentality is just a game”. To this he responded, “It may be a game, but it’s the only damn game in town”. For those of us who see publishing as a key role of the professorate and the creation of new knowledge as our duty and legacy to the profession, publishing is our passion, privilege, and pleasure. However, like a game successful publishing and the development of a publication record requires specific skills, techniques, and knowledge. There are also rules and procedures that must be adhered to for success to be achieved. Success in professional publishing can also be enhanced by following several simple practices.
1. Write every day. Set aside a specific time (at least one hour) in which you isolate yourself from all other people and activities to write. Do not allowed yourself to be disturbed during this time for any reason other than an emergency.
2. Be disciplined. Don’t allow yourself to fall into a pattern of procrastination or let other matters intrude on the specified writing time.
3. Understand the critical issues and debates in your field. Keep abreast of those issues that are dominant in your profession. Discuss them with colleagues and reflect on your (and their ) positions. Invest time in articulating your position and addressing shortcomings of other positions.
4. Draw inspiration from sources outside your professional sphere. Read across disciplines, especially disciplines outside of education (my favorite is theoretical physics) and think about how the philosophy, theory, and data might apply to schools and schooling. Pop culture (especially motion pictures, music, and television programs), stories featured on National Public Radio, documentaries on the Science Channel, the Discovery Channel, and the National Geographic Channel, and trade books in science and business have all been the inspiration for some of my past articles.
5. Find a mentor. Nothing can positively enhance your chances of publishing than working with a successful professional writer. All university departments include successful writers who are willing to share their knowledge and skills with junior faculty.
6. Mentor somebody. While this may not seem to be a way to enhance your chances of publication, I have found that mentoring a junior faculty member is an excellent experience in learning and growth. I have never failed to come away from mentoring another person without learning something new and being able to improve my independent writing.
7. Network at conferences. Once you have established an acquaintance with other professionals, look for their name on the review boards of journals. Ask them to read your manuscripts and comment on your work. Being familiar with the standards of their journal, they can offer suggestions to improve your work and enhance your chances of publication. Most peer jurors will recuse themselves if ,by chance, they are assigned a manuscript that they have previously seen and commented on.
8. Know the history of your field. A wise man once said, “Those who do not know history are doomed to repeat it”. I recently had a junior faculty member in Educational Leadership admit that she did not know who Fredrick Taylor was. This fact explained her support of No Child Left Behind and her reluctance to join collegial debate concerning the law. If you do not understand the profession’s past and its relation to the present and future of the field, your writing cannot be current and meaningful.
9. Be creative in the format and title of your work. This can be a means to catch the eye of reviewers and editors. Maurice Kendall’s poem “Hiawatha Designs an Experiment” (The American Statistician, 1954), Don Baer’s “A Note on the Absence of Santa Claus in Any Known Ecosystem” (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974) or literary dialogue “Perhaps it Would be Better Not to Know Everything (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1977), Joe Blackbourn’s “Postmodern Eye for the Education Guy” (Unpublished manuscript) are all efforts that possess eye catching features either in the title or format. Creativity in this area alone cannot guarantee success, there must also be substance within the paper.
10. Invite constructive feedback and criticism. To be successful, one must see rejection as an opportunity. Dr. James S. Payne, the most successful writer of university textbooks I have met, had his first book manuscript rejected over 100 times before he found a publisher. The lesson here is “Never give up”.
11. Take time to think. Scholarly writing and research requires thought. Thought requires brains. Together the two produce ideas. Without ideas, you have nothing to write about.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, the purpose of this article was to provide practical advice on how to get published in professional journals. The contributing writers have almost 500 years combined experience in professional education. The writers offered expert guidance in writing for professional publication in national refereed, peer-reviewed, blind-reviewed, juried, academic and scholarly periodicals.
See: www.nationalforum.com
Writing for Professional Publication in National Refereed Journals
University of Maine, Orono
June 1, 2008
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University/The Texas A&M University System
1. Professional reasons for writing for publication
2. Personal reasons for writing for publication
3. How real writers behave
4. Writer’s write for the following reasons
5. How to get started
6. What will “sell” the editor on your work?
7. Formula: Brilliant Ideas + Good Luck + Knowing the Right People = Publication
8. On scholarly work
9. Reasons to write and publish journal articles
10. Writing and publishing journal articles enables you to…
11. Three basic types of articles: practical – review or theoretical – research
12. Quantitative Studies
13. Qualitative Research
14. On writing books
15. Four phases of book publishing
16. Some reasons to write a book
17. Where does the dollar go after a book is published?
18. What do editors and reviewers really want?
19. Earning approval from editors and reviewers
20. What to remember about bad writing
21. How to get fired as a reviewer
22. Publish or perish or teach or impeach
23. I’ve been rejected many times – should I give up?
24. In writing, how you read is important
25. How teachable is writing?
26. “I can’t seem to tell how my writing is going while I am doing it. Can you help?
27. Remember your purpose in writing
28. What differentiates ordinary writing from writing with style
29. It must get somewhat easier to write, otherwise, how would some authors become
so prolific?
30. If writing for publication does not prove to be lucrative, why bother?
31. Why creative work is worthwhile
32. Show respect for your writing. It is about what the readers should know. If this puts a strain on a professional relationship, then so be it.
33. “Why I Write” (Orwell) Sheer egoism, aesthetic enthusiasm, historical impulse, and political purpose.
34. What really makes an academic write?
35. The Writer’s Essential Tools – words and the power to face unpleasant facts.
36. No human activity can sap the strength from body and life from spirit as much as writing in which one doesn’t believe.
37. “Because it was there.” Edmund Hillary. And with this comment he supplied generations with a ready-made and unanswerable defense for any new undertaking even writing.
38. Why we write.
39. Climbing Your Own Mountain
Please list any other topics you want Dr. Kritsonis to discuss.
Copyright © 2008 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Gary Bates, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Over the past thirty-five years, many studies have been done pertaining to the school superintendency. A majority of these studies have been primarily focused on, but not limited to, hiring practices, retention, leadership styles, board relations, and females in the superintendency. In comparison, there have been few studies concerning African Americans in the superintendency.
According to a 2005 report by the National Alliance of Black School Educators (NABSE), African American students made up 9% of the total population in U.S. public schools in 2003. In 1998, The National Center of Education Statistics (NCES) reported that by 2020, the African American student population is expected to be around 16%. NCES also predicted that the white population will decrease to about 10%, while other racial groups will expand; some will grow to over 60% (Hosier, 2002). African American superintendents were in charge of just 328 districts that constituted 2% of the 14,559 public school districts in the nation in 2005. Even though there has been an increase in the numbers of African American school superintendents, the percentages have not kept up with the growing percentage of African Americans in American schools (NABSE, 2005).
Minority students, mainly African American students, in America struggle with academic success for a variety of reasons. “Students from ethnic minority backgrounds typically have the highest poverty rates and the highest school dropout rates in the United States” (Williams, 1992, p. 158). Researchers have found that teachers who have different racial and socioeconomic backgrounds from their students tend to expect less from minority and poverty stricken students (Onwuegbuzie, 1998). Many male African-American students particularly struggle to reach academic success. The fate of the African American male youth has become a national crisis about which something must be done. “African American male students composed about 8.6% of the nation’s public school enrollment, yet they comprised 60% of all incarcerated youth in American” (Smith, 2005, p.17). According to Onwuegbuzie (1998, p. 69), African American administrators could “serve as role models for African American students by exposing them to professionally successful individuals”. The level of education could improve for many African American students if there were more African American educators and public school administrators. “All students need to see people who look like them in positions of importance and power. When children see individuals in positions of power and influence who look like them, they learn that educational and professional opportunities are attainable” (Jackson, J. 2002).
The position of the school superintendent has been a Caucasian male-dominated occupation preserved primarily through the “good old boy” network. Most superintendents in 2000 were married, white, male, of middle age, from small towns, held advanced degrees in educational administration, and for the most part, shared common values and opinions (Glass, Bjork, & Brunner, 2000). School boards and superintendent search committees have also perpetuated the status quo by giving preferential treatment to the white males in their selection of school superintendents (Revere,1987).
Moody’s 1971 study, “Black Superintendents in Public School Districts: Trends and Conditions,” focusing only on African American school superintendents, examined the history and the progression of the African American school superintendent and their experiences. Two studies (Dawkins, 2004; Edwards, 1974) compared Moody’s findings with more contemporary research. Both studies found that issues and conditions that beleaguered African American school superintendents throughout the years have somewhat lessened. Studies indicated that the number of African American superintendents increased over time (Dawkins, 2004; Edwards, 1974; Glass et al. 2000; Scott, 1980; Williams, 1984).
In 1971 there were twenty-one African American school superintendents in the United States (Moody, 1974), while in The Black School Superintendent, Messiah or Scapegoat, Hugh J. Scott (1980) stated that in 1974 there were 44 African American school superintendents, representing about 0.25 percent of total school superintendents in the United States. Recent data indicate there are 328 districts with African American school superintendents’ nationwide representing two percent of school superintendents (NABSE, 2005). Although the number of African American school superintendents has increased, there continues to be an under representation of African American school superintendents (Glass et al., 2000). African American school superintendents are usually located in districts that contain more than 50% African American student population with a majority of the population consisting of low socioeconomic environment. Edwards (1974), supporting Moody’s (1971) findings, concluded that 83.4% of the African American superintendents reported their student populations were at least 50% African American. Scott (1990) also found that African America school superintendents headed school systems with a combined enrollment of about three million students, of whom about two million were African American. Dawkins (2004) found that 68.7% of school superintendents reported African American student populations of over 50%.
Scott (1990) reports that African American school superintendents exert considerable influence over the kind and content of education provided for large numbers of African American students in their districts. Studies indicate that three of the investigations (Dawkins, 2004; Edwards, 1974; Moody, 1971) were conducted in the Northern states of Illinois and Michigan. Hence, the knowledge gained from the research is imperative to the field of education, studies has been limited to certain demographic areas within the United States that causes limited generalization.
Statement of the Problem
There is a lack of research evaluating the state of the working environment of African American school superintendents employed with public school districts in the United States. This study seeks to identify the differences in experiences between current African American school superintendents, superintendents who participated in the 2000 American Association of School Administrators study and African American school superintendents employed in the early 1980’s. Correlations among the top five factors that inhibit effectiveness stated by a sample of all superintendents employed in 2000 and African American school superintendents employed currently will also be performed.
While some studies of African American school superintendents exist, the majority of these studies (Dawkins, 2004; Edward, 1975; Hibbets, 2005; R. Johnson, 2005; Moody, 1971) focused on the experiences of the African American school superintendents in concentrated parts of the United States. These previous studies found that most African American school superintendents were hired in districts with many obstacles preventing student success within the districts. Such districts had inadequate financial resources and reputations as being “problem” schools (Scott, 1980). School districts that hired African American school superintendents tended to have high concentrations of economically disadvantaged African American students and experienced declining achievement scores on standardized tests (Moody, 1980). Dawkins (2004) identified similar results.
Purpose of the Study
Limited research has been done on the factors that assist African Americans in the field to become school superintendents. The primary purpose of this investigation was to study what factors contributed to an African American becoming a school superintendent and retaining that position, in the opinion of a selected group of African American school superintendents. Findings will assist African Americans presently in education who are motivated in becoming a school superintendent. This study also sought to discern whether African American superintendents perceive race as a barrier in obtaining the superintendency. Information gathered from individual experiences of current African American public school superintendents should assist educators in understanding the trials and tribulations of current African American public school superintendents and in identifying what has assisted them in overcoming obstacles. A secondary purpose of this study was to discover if there is a difference in perceptions between African American superintendents, superintendents who participated in the 2000 AASA study, and African American superintendents that participated in Williams’ study of 1984. The third purpose of this study was to create a profile of a successful African American school superintendent to assist potential African American superintendents in their endeavor of becoming a leader in education.
While in many parts of the United States, school districts are becoming increasingly diverse there is a lack of districts represented by African American school superintendents. Many African Americans have not had educational experiences or opportunities equivalent to mainstream Anglo-Saxon students. According to Scott (1980), the current and past social structures have created and maintained excessive socioeconomic differences that have perpetuated these inequalities. Little change has occurred in the number of minority school leaders over the years, and few attempts have been made to resolve this under representation (Glass et al., 2000).
Onwueabuzie (1998) found the number of African Americans in the education profession was highest in the 1970’s, a consequence of the Brown vs. Board of Education (1954) ruling and the civil rights movement in the 1960s (Scott, 1980). Societal changes allowed African Americans to attend public schools and colleges and encouraged and improved equality in the work place. During the 1970s, education was a welcoming field for educated African Americans, while many other fields were hard to break into (Dawkins, 2004). As additional employment opportunities became more available, African Americans began choosing career fields other than education (Wenner, 1998). This decreased the number of African Americans entering the profession of education.
It is vital that changes occur to encourage an increase in the number of African Americans in the profession of education. Increases in the number of opportunities in the profession of education for minorities might attract more African Americans to pursue a career in education. Participation of women and minorities serving as leaders in schools is one measure of education’s real commitment to equal opportunity. Children relate with role models that are of the same gender and race (Onwuegbuzie, 1998). More importantly, negative stereotypes decrease when individuals of different races or backgrounds assume positions of leadership and influential roles (Scott, 1990). With the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and increasing accountability with the Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), it is imperative that leaders be identified who can lead schools into what is an uncertain future.
Research Questions
Quantitative
1. What are the personal characteristics of currently employed African American school superintendents?
2. Is there a significant difference in the frequencies of the top five ranked factors that inhibit effectiveness of all superintendents in the 2000 AASA study and the responses of African American superintendents in 2006?
3. Is there a significant difference in the frequencies of the factors encountered en route to the superintendency by African American superintendents in the early 1980’s and African American superintendents in 2006?
Qualitative
4. What are the problems in leading a school district identified by African American school superintendents? Is race a factor?
5. What are the barriers to career advancement for African Americans in the superintendency?
6. What qualities or characteristics are vital to the success of an African American school superintendent?
Null Hypotheses
H01 There will be no statistically significant difference in the frequencies of the top five ranked factors that inhibit effectiveness of all superintendents in the 2000 AASA study and the responses of African American superintendents in 2006.
H02 There will be no statistical significant difference in the frequencies of the factors encountered en route to the superintendency by African American superintendents in early 1980’s and African American superintendents in 2006.
Significance of the Study
With the rapidly increasing diversity of communities and neighborhoods, the traditional school environment has been forced to adapt to differences within society and communities. Despite changes, many aspects within public school systems have remained unaffected. First, this study described aspects of the African American school superintendency from past to present and adds to the limited but growing body of research concerning African American school superintendents. Second, this study created a profile of a successful African American school superintendent. Such a profile may assist African Americans aspiring to be a school superintendent in cultivating positive attributes needed in preparing for conditions that may apply specifically to the African American’s experience as a school superintendent.
Assumptions
The researcher assumed the following:
1. Each subject presented accurate and relevant information in response to the survey instrument and to interview questions.
2. Each subject had the appropriate experiences in education to assume the responsibilities associated with the public school superintendency.
3. Data collection instruments were valid and reliable based upon their previous use.
Limitations
The findings of this study were limited by:
1. The study was limited to information gathered from a literature review, survey responses, and the interview responses of the selected school superintendents.
2. This study was limited to the full time administrators currently employed as a public school superintendent. Assistant superintendents, administrative assistants, and principal/superintendents were not be included in this study.
3. Findings of the study may not be generalized beyond the African American school superintendents identified by the researcher.
Delimitations
The findings of the study were subject to the following delimitations:
1. The data collected were from questionnaire and interview responses from each school superintendent.
2. Names of subjects remain confidential in order to encourage honest and accurate responses.
3. The population of this research consisted of African American public school superintendents in the United States.
Definition of Terms
American Association of School Administrator (AASA) Professional education association comprised mostly of public school administrators that promotes and represents educational administration issues (American Association of School Administrators, 2005).
Challenges Test of one's abilities or resources in critical issues in a
demanding but stimulating undertaking. (Noonan & Perrault, 2002).
Chi-Square A nonparametric test of statistical significance appropriate when the data are in the form of frequency counts; it compares frequencies actually observed in a study with expected frequencies to see whether they are significantly different (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003).
Culture A common set of beliefs, values and behaviors; a descriptive apparatus (Silverman, 2005).
“Good Old Boy” network Comprised of white, male dominated, informal groups whose members acquire and retain the vast majority of top level administrative positions (Wenner, 1998).
Mixed-Method Design Designs which include at least one quantitative method (designed to collect numbers) and one qualitative method (designed to collect words). Defined as the class of research where the researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods, approaches, concepts, or language into a single study (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).
National Alliance of Black School Educators (NABSE) the only national
membership organization devoted to furthering the academic success of the nation’s children – particularly children of African descent. NABSE’s mission is to improve the educational accomplishments of African American youth (NABSE, 2005).
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) An act passed by the United States
Congress that mandates all school districts who receive federal funding comply with accountability measures on student performance as defined by federal and state standards (Petersen & Young, 2004).
Race A local geographic or global human population distinguished as a more or less distinct group by genetically transmitted physical characteristics. African American, as applied to a race, are people of color who can trace their heritage as members of any of many African nations (Dawkins, 2004).
School Superintendent The individual who is designated as the chief officer of a public school district and is charged with the responsibility and execution of activities that have as their purpose the general direction and control of the affairs of a local district (Dawson, 2005).
Texas Education Agency (TEA) Comprised of the commissioner of education and agency staff. The TEA and the State Board of Education (SBOE) guide and monitor activities and programs related to public education in Texas. The SBOE consists of 15 elected members representing different regions of the state (TEA, 2005).
Triangulation When two different methods are used in an attempt to confirm, cross-validate, or corroborate findings within a single study (Creswell, 2003)
Organization of the Study
The study was organized utilizing five chapters. Chapter I includes the Introduction, Statement of the Problem, Purpose of the Study, Research Questions, Significance of the Study, Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations, Definition of Terms, and finally the Organization of the Study. Chapter II is comprised of a review of literature. Method for the study and data analysis, procedures, and instrumentation are found in Chapter III. Chapter IV consists of an analysis and explanation of all data. The summary of the research, study conclusions, and suggestions for further study are found in Chapter V.
Gary Bates, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
During the 2004 school year, the National Alliance of Black School Educators (NABSE) found that more than a quarter of the African American student population was educated in a district led by an African American school superintendent. More than half of the students in these districts were low-income and over half of the districts were in urban areas. These superintendents have contributed greatly in closing the achievement gap among minority, low-income, and more advantaged students by raising the academic achievement of their students (Dawkins, 2004).
With only two percent of the nation’s public school districts led by African American school superintendents, there is a need to increase the number of African American school superintendents in order to help erase the achievement gap (NABSE, 2005). This study will assist in this effort by increasing the awareness of concerns that are specific to African American school superintendents.
An examination of the literature revealed minimal current information specifically related to African American school superintendents. Available literature included materials on the history of the school superintendency, the history of the African American school superintendent, the history of the African American female school superintendent, the role of the school superintendent, and the future of school superintendency.
The History of the School Superintendency
New York was the first state to appoint a school superintendent in 1812 (Brubacher, 1947). The position of school district superintendency was first created in Buffalo and Louisville in 1837 and Providence and St. Louis in 1839 (Moehlman, 1940). Superintendents at this time were primarily responsible for the management and distribution of the state’s common school fund, as well as manage funds for the school district. During this time, public schools were considered separate entities and independently controlled their own decisions and curriculum.
Early school superintendents faced significant challenges. One of the most important challenges was ensuring the continued existence of a public education for all. Many of the first school superintendents accepted the school superintendent position in support of the “common school” movement. Although many times these positions were filled by non-educators, these individuals were considered to be “true educational reformers” (Glass, 2000), traveling to promote the idea of a common education to all children and raising money for their school districts.
By the early 1900’s, most of the city districts had public school superintendents who were generally appointed by the local school board (Campbell, 1980). These positions were more fully defined in the twentieth century, though it was very difficult to find consistency in job requirements because many districts were extremely small. Consequently, the occupation of school superintendent was defined by the needs of the district. Early school superintendents were not given the responsibility of educating children, but rather were held accountable for other areas of school business, such as upkeep of school property, allocating school supplies, distributing funds to needed areas, and record keeping. Over time, the role of the school superintendent developed to include curriculum and instructional methods (Harris, 1892).
In the twenty-first century, the position of school superintendent has evolved so that school superintendents are considered the “expert” on schools in the community. The school superintendent is looked upon by both school boards and district employees as the expert in knowledge and leadership that will direct the district and students to success. As districts consolidate and grow, the position of school superintendent has become a significant appointment with a number of individuals vying for a vacancy. It is important to define positive characteristics of a successful school superintendent.
One valuable asset that a successful school superintendent should have is the concept of the “big picture”. While teachers have to be aware of the classroom and students and principals must be concerned with the school, parents, and school activities, the school superintendent has to have an extended view of the district, recognizing the importance of each individual classroom, each school, and the interplay of every element that it takes for the district to be successful. Consequently, a school superintendent has to have a working knowledge of many variables. School superintendents cannot concern themselves with just one thing; they must involve themselves in the many aspects of leading a district (Sharp & Walter, 1997).
Jackson (1995) acknowledged the three primary roles of the superintendent as public official, politician, and manager. In the role of the public official, the superintendent has to please the community, the city representatives, and the school board. Two significant attributes that should symbolize the relationship between the superintendent and the school board are trust and hope. The board trusts the superintendent will bring the qualities and credentials from previous experience necessary to the district and hopes those qualities and credentials will result in the ability to develop and communicate a vision of quality education for the future to the board, staff, and community (Scott, 1980).
Over time, the position of the school superintendent has become more political (Glass, 2000). In the role of politician, the superintendent must negotiate agreements, build trusting partnerships between the community and the school, and try to stay abreast of state and national politics (Johnson, 1996). In order to be successful as a school superintendent, educational leaders must be able to recognize and work around the political goals of others.
The role of school superintendent was first developed to manage the business of the school district and that role has not changed over time. School superintendents must be able to plan, organize, coordinate, lead, instruct, and command (Robbins, 2000). Superintendents must be able to creatively plan a clear vision for the district and coordinate and lead the district towards success in order to be considered a competent manager (Cormier, 2003). To ensure success, superintendents must be adequately experienced and prepared.
Classroom teaching experience is usually the beginning of the general career path for the average school superintendent. Fifty-eight percent of school superintendents have had experience as a coach and a majority of school superintendents have secondary teaching experience. The next step to the superintendency is typically the position of assistant principal and then principal. Following the principalship, a majority of superintendents spend time as a central office administrator, as an assistant superintendent, or district coordinator. Most superintendents spend 14-17 years in the superintendency working within an average of 2-3 school districts. Average tenure of a school superintendent with one district is five to seven years, according to the 2000 American Association of School Administrators study concerning the American School Superintendency (Glass et al., 2000).
The exact number of superintendents in the United States is not known, according to the 2000 AASA study (Glass et al., 2000), because many superintendents serve in more than one district and in very small districts; therefore a superintendent may also be the school principal and may not be counted as a superintendent. Each decade, according to the AASA studies, the overall number of school superintendents drops.
History of the African American Superintendent
Public education was not available to most African Americans until the early 1900’s. In order to educate young African Americans, missionaries opened many clandestine schools in churches and homes. When they were discovered, these schools were burned down, and many teachers were tortured and ostracized by the community (Edwards, 1974). African Americans were often teachers in these schools. In one such school system, Jones and Montenegro (1982) found documents that revealed the existence of African American principals employed at the Quaker-sponsored Institute for Colored Youth in Philadelphia from 1802 to 1903.
When public education first opened to African American students, schools were usually headed by white school administrators and funded by donations from several philanthropic individuals (Jackson, 1979). Anna T. Jeanes, one such individual, left a fund specifically for the maintenance and assistance of small southern schools that educated African Americans. Described as educational leaders, individuals holding the supervisory positions for districts receiving money from the Jeanes fund were called the Jeanes Supervisors, 80% of whom were African American. These positions were used to show that African Americans could handle the responsibility of school leadership. They had limited administrative duties and mainly concerned themselves with providing an excellent education for their African American students. Later in the 1950’s the role of the Jeanes Supervisor had grown from a local to a state-wide responsibility (Jackson, 1979).
The school superintendent role was populated by white males in the first half of the twentieth century. Few comprehensive studies have been completed concerning the African American school superintendency and the specific complications experienced by African Americans. Moody (1971) and Scott (1980) were pioneers in research of the African American school superintendent.
The first comprehensive study of African American school superintendents was completed by Moody (1971). In Moody’s study, the history and the progression of the African American school superintendent and their experiences were described. This study contributed to the African American community by leading Moody to found the National Alliance of Black School Superintendents (NABSS) that is now named the National Alliance of Black School Educators (NABSE) (Dunlap, 1997). Moody’s study found that African Americans placed as superintendents of school districts were usually hired in districts that had critical issues, such as financial distress, student populations of African Americans over 50%, and low performing schools (Moody, 1971). The findings were collaborated by Edwards (1974), Jones and Montenegro (1982), and Dawkins (2004).
Hugh Scott was the next major contributor to the literature on the African American school superintendent. Scott’s study aimed at identifying and examining African American school superintendents, their background, and experiences. Later, this body of research resulted in the book The Black School Superintendent Messiah or Scapegoat? (Scott, 1980).
Great improvements have been made in the status and opportunities of African Americans because of the efforts of African Americans to change the status quo. Demonstrations and disruptions were frequently the only means of communicating the grievances that African Americans had concerning the unequal ways in which they were treated (Scott, 1980). During the late 1950’s to early 1960’s, the African American school administrator’s occupational roles where limited to Assistant Superintendent in charge of Special Projects, Director of Human Relations, or Administrative Assistant for Minority Affairs (Moody, 1971). Even though Brown vs. Board of Education (1954) struck down the Plessy vs. Ferguson’s Doctrine of “Separate, but Equal,” the struggle for desegregation continued for years, both in the courtroom and in the classroom. The desegregation of the public school system opened up additional leadership positions for African Americans in the public educational system.
Preceding the 1960’s, a majority of African American school superintendents were appointed to all-African American school districts in small southern cities. These school superintendents were not recognized in the educational literature and were mostly ignored. This continued until major urban school districts began hiring African American school superintendents. Scott (1980) found the predecessors of the African American school superintendent were Lillard Ashley of Boley, Oklahoma (1956), Lorenzo Smith of Hopkins Park, Illinois (1956), E.W. Warrior of Taft, Oklahoma (1958), and Arthur Shropshire of Kinlock, Missouri (1963).
During the civil rights movement many advances were made toward educational equality. There was a call by African American leaders and the African American public for representation in leadership positions in schools as teachers and administrators. This led to the hiring of African American school superintendents in large school districts. The first African American school superintendents of large districts were Ersel Watson of Trenton, New Jersey (1969), Marcus Foster of Oakland, California (1970), and Hugh Scott of Washington, D.C. (1970). Two African Americans were also promoted to chief state school officers during this time; John Porter appointed state superintendent for Michigan in 1969 and Wilson Riles was elected state superintendent of instruction for California in 1970.
During this time period, school districts that hired African American school superintendents tended to be plagued with serious problems, setting the superintendents up for failure from the beginning. The reason African Americans were hired as school superintendents, according to Scott (1980), was because non-minority school superintendents would not apply for these vacancies. Three years was typically the length of time an African American school superintendent would remain in the leadership position in one school district.
African American school superintendents found themselves in a precarious position. Frequently, the African American public used the moniker “Uncle Tom” to describe African American school superintendents, while many of the white community looked to the African American school superintendent as the “Black Jesus” who was going to “save” the communities schools (Edwards, 1974). Page, an African American school superintendent (1972, p. 25), wrote: “Remember, Black America, that I am not an Uncle Tom. Remember, White America, that I am no Black Jesus. Remember, all America, that I am just a man.”
During the 1970-1971 school year, Moody (1971) found 21 African American school superintendents. By 1974, Scott (1980) identified forty-four school systems lead by African American school superintendents. The American Association of School Administrators (Jones & Montenegro, 1982) conducted the first national survey during the 1982 school year that focused on the representation of minorities in school superintendent positions. This study found that less than one percent (96 out of 16,000) of the school superintendents at that time were African American.
While increases have been made in the number of African American school superintendents since the mid-1970’s, white males continue to dominate the field of educational administration and school superintendency. Even though an increase in numbers occurred, the percentage of African American superintendents in the nation does not match the percentage of African American students in the United States (NASBE, 2005).
The general career path of an African American school superintendent was twice as likely to start as a teacher, then principal, than non-minorities. Following the principalship, African Americans then pursued a central office position, working their way to superintendent (Dunlap, 1997 and Werner, 1998). While minority superintendents, according to Dunlap (1997), were just as likely as a non-minority individual to ascend to a school superintendent position from inside the district where they were currently employed, the majority of minority school superintendents came into the superintendency from another district.
African American school superintendents encountered many different factors on the road to becoming a school superintendent. The top six factors listed in order (Williams, 1984, p. 109) were:
1. Societal attitudes that African Americans lack the competency in leadership positions.
2. Racial discrimination.
3. Absence of the “old boys” network, sponsorship, or other support systems.
4. Absence of a systematic method, either formal or informal, for school districts to identify Blacks aspiring to administrative posts and/or superintendencies.
5. Predominance of non-African American employers.
6. Lack of role models.
The African American school superintendent is the most isolated and lonely of all public servants (Scott, 1980). Very few of his or her fellow colleagues are also African American. African American school superintendents cannot expect constructive criticism or advice from other non-minority school superintendents. Yet, one of the most influential forces in a community is potentially the African American school superintendent. Scott (1980) states that African American school superintendents must unite with other African American leaders to make essential changes for the betterment of the education afforded to African American students. Although African American school superintendents face grave problems, they must work diligently and be vigilant, or they will fail due to their own insufficiencies and/or from the lack of appreciation and injustice from those they serve.
Scott (1980) predicted that problems would continue for African American students and individuals in the field of education. Many believe that racist attitudes of boards and school personnel contribute to the performance deficiencies among African American students. Scott stated that noteworthy increases in the number of African American school superintendents will be a sign of the continued societal decline and increased racial isolation rather than the conscious decision by school boards to act in accordance with the principle of equal employment opportunity. A majority the participants of Wenner’s (1998) study believed that they were held to higher standards than the non-minority individuals.
The low number of African American teachers during the1980’s and early 1990’s has severely limited the pool of potential African American school administrators (Hodgkinson, 1990). Something has to be done to increase the number of minority students going into the field of education. Wenner (1998) names strategies such as mentoring, networking with other superintendents, training programs and programs that seek and encourage minorities to be educational leaders to increase the number of minority school superintendents.
In 2004, the National Alliance of Black School Educators (NABSE) completed an analysis of the demographic overview of schools lead by African American superintendents. Table 2.1 indicates that only two percent of districts were lead by African American superintendents in the United States in 2004 while 9% of students were African American.
Table 2.1 National Comparison of African American lead Districts 2004
Districts Lead by African American Superintendents Total Districts in the United States Percent Lead by African American Superintendents
Districts 313 14,559 2%
Schools
7,244
94,054
8%
Students
4,249,749
47,687,871
9%
Teachers
267,371
2,952,991
9%
Note: NABSE, 2004
Even though the number of African American applicants for superintendent is minimal, qualified applicants exist. The main problem is that most openings for African American superintendents do not exist outside of urban majority minority districts. According to Jerry Jackson (2006):
There are African Americans in the pipeline. But my
research suggests that these candidates are not pursued,
recruited, or promoted as vigorously as white candidates.
If anything there is a logjam in the pipeline. While white
candidates can take positions in both white and minority
districts, the reality is that African American candidates are
rarely considered for positions in non-minority districts (pg. 25).
The 2000 AASA study also found that 46.9% of minorities think that there is a major problem with discriminatory hiring practices (Glass et al., 2000). This double standard must be remedied for the betterment of the educational system.
History of the African American Woman School Superintendent
Most studies concerning the school superintendency have relied solely on research focused on white, male superintendents. Nevertheless, during the past 20 years, researchers have placed greater importance on race and gender (Hosier, 2002). Shakeshaft (1989) found that a major reason women are underrepresented in the field of school administration is because of gender discrimination caused by stereotypic attitudes toward women.
While African American women held positions as teachers and principals, there is only one documented case of an African American woman holding a position of school superintendent before the 1970’s; Velma Dolphin Ashley, was superintendent of the Boley, Oklahoma school district from 1944 – 1956. There were no women superintendents referenced in Moody’s 1971 study. The number of African American women school superintendents increased to 5 in 1978, 11 in 1982, and 25 in 1986 (Revere, 1989). At first, African American women school superintendents, just like African American males, were employed in major urban school districts, such as New York, Chicago, Detroit, Washington, D.C., and Cleveland. As the number of minority students increased and moved to the suburbs, leadership positions in smaller districts opened up to African American women. It appears that the number of African American women school superintendents started to decline during the late 1990’s due to sexism, racism, social ills, conflicts with school boards, family obligations, low student achievement, and retirement (Hosier, 2002). This is further supported by “The 2000 Study of the American School Superintendency” that reported there were 15 African American women school superintendents, that is approximately .01% of total school superintendents (Glass et al., 2000).
Research specifically on African American women serving as superintendents is limited but growing. Some studies relate to women in general in the school superintendency within a subsection concerning minorities. When a woman becomes a superintendent, she frequently finds herself “between a rock and a hard place” because of the often invisible sexism in society. Skrla (1998) reported that “Everything she does to enhance her assertiveness risks undercutting her femininity, in the eyes of others. And everything she does to fit the expectations of how a woman should take risks undercutting the impression of competence that she makes” (p.3).
Jackson (1995) investigated African American women school superintendents from 1984 –1994. She found four common themes concerning the advancement of African American women school superintendents and how they felt about each theme.
The first theme concerned the fact that African American women had the support and experience they needed to be successful, even though they were limited in their power just as white school superintendents observed
The second theme was African American women believed they were making a difference and were optimistic about their futures
The third theme consisted of the fact the school superintendency was a position where one lived their “life in a fishbowl” and the acceptance that the women had for their jobs
The fourth theme was the discreditation of the popular misconception that African American women were not as well trained or as good at their jobs
Studies have reported that a majority of women school superintendents came from an elementary background and began their administrative careers in elementary schools (Brunner, 1999; Glass et al., 2000). A 2000 AASA study also revealed that women school superintendents believed their connections helped them to get the positions they were in at the time. Women were four times more likely to think that discriminatory practices were barriers to women in attaining superintendencies. Such discriminatory factors identified by the 2000 AASA study (Glass et al., 2000) included the perceptions of board members that women are not strong mangers, that women do not understand finance and budget issues, and that women allow emotions to influence decisions.
African American women who seek the school superintendency find the position difficult to attain. Silver (1978) asserted the small number of female school superintendents was thought to listen to the whims of the foundation of the communities who select school superintendents. Even when they were hired as a superintendent, it was in districts that had poorly managed schools and they were generally used as scapegoats (Yeakey, Johnston, & Adkison, 1986). As an isolated group, African American women are almost non-existent in the top administrative level of public school districts. This remains true even though from years 1985 to 2000 the number of women in professional preparation programs has surpassed the number of men in these programs (Glass et al., 2000).
Role of the Superintendent
Perhaps the single most important primary objective for a school superintendent is to provide for the safety and education of children. While the role and purpose of the school superintendent often varies from district to district, school superintendents must create the leadership climate for the entire school system.
The roles of school superintendent and business executive have many similarities; they both must generate quality results or endure condemnation and/or termination. The public school superintendent has many individuals to please, such as students, parents, teachers, principals, the community, and the school board (Zemlicka, 2001). As the chief executive officer of a school district, the school superintendent must provide leadership and a sense of stability for both the community and the school system. Modern-day school superintendents must not only have the essential technical and administrative skills but must also be able to deal with controversial issues (Scott, 1980). The school superintendent is a supervisor of conflict. The school superintendent must possess a sense of society’s complexity. School superintendents must be able to analyze and interpret social issues and transform these issues into public school policy all within the current environment of high stakes testing.
Campbell, Cunningham, Nystrand, & Usdan (1990) asserted that school superintendents do not have many powers given to them by state legislatures. The power as superintendent is given by the district’s school board. While the power of superintendents has diminished over time, they still hold great control on the workings of a school district. School superintendents have the capacity to develop and control the flow of information in the district; they can analyze this information to plan and mediate for the district’s future. Superintendents spent 80% of their time talking with others, dealing with technical information, legal rules and regulations, past activities of the district, preferences of different people, and possible consequences for different decisions (Campbell et al., 1990). These activities seem to be largely deskwork, telephone calls, and scheduled and unscheduled meetings.
The relationship between the board of education and the superintendent is vitally important, not only regarding the job security of the school superintendent but also for the efficient management of the school district. The school board and the superintendent must build a trusting relationship so that together they can create a successful cooperative atmosphere for the school district (Sharp & Walter, 1997). Sharp and Walter (1997) stated that superintendents and school boards should spend some time together to discuss types of decisions they both will be involved in making. It is suggested these decisions should be placed into one of five categories:
1) The superintendent has complete authority to act, within board policy.
2) The superintendent has complete authority to act, but must inform the board of the action.
3) The superintendent has authority to act only with prior approval from the board.
4) The superintendent makes recommendations, but the decision is up to the board.
5) The superintendent does not participate in the decision.
Superintendents and school boards must find a way to work together to establish a good working relationship. Each have a distinct role, but they must work as a team and establish a good relationship with few misunderstandings. School superintendents need to remember that things are not equal (Sharp and Walter, 1997). The school board has all of the power, holds all of the votes, hires and fires the superintendent, and makes decisions on raises and length of contracts. School boards decide how much power a school superintendent may possess in the decision-making process of a school district (Scott, 1980). When the board and the school superintendent cannot come to an agreement, the board will have the final say. Once the school board has established policy, it is the school superintendent’s responsibility to administer these policies district-wide. Often there are differences between the views of school boards and school superintendents.
Though at times school superintendents and school boards may have significant disagreements over power boundaries, the school superintendent needs the school board to back ideas. It is vital that the relationship with the school board is successful for a school superintendent to be successful. Without clear, specific dialogue between the roles of the school superintendents and the school boards, tension and conflict in many school districts across the nation is a part of daily life.
If school boards and school superintendents are to keep hold of their historical leadership positions, it will be necessary to continue the process of board training and school superintendent preparation. Each entity must also examine whether their current roles and activities are consistent with the mission and vision of the school systems of the twenty-first century (Glass et al., 2000).
Current Issues with the Superintendency
The American Association of School Administrators (AASA) has created a report on the characteristics and challenges of the American school superintendent nearly every ten years since the 1920’s. The first study was dated from 1921-1922 and published in 1923. Subsequent studies were completed in 1933, 1952, 1960, 1971, 1982, 1992, and 2000. A study was not completed in the 1940’s because of World War II (Knezevich, 1984). Even though the content and direction has varied, these studies have contributed vital details that have assisted researchers in understanding the role and challenges of school superintendency.
The economy and its effect on education was the focus of the 1933 study. The similarities and differences between rural and urban school superintendents was the center of the 1952 study. In 1960, the study was written in yearbook style and discussed how to prepare to become a superintendent. The study of 1971 changed the format of the research completely and consisted of over 100 questions. Questions from the 1971 study were adapted and used in the 1982, 1992, and 2000 studies. This has allowed comparisons among the subsequent years.
Herein, comparisons were made between the data collected on superintendents nationwide in “The 2000 Study of the American School Superintendency” (Glass et. al, 2000) and the data collected from this study concerning African American school superintendents nationwide. Detailed information on the AASA 2000 study is listed in this subsection of the review of literature. “The 2000 Study of the American School Superintendency” (Glass et al., 2000) was conducted through an 86 item survey mailed in 1999 to currently employed school superintendents in the United States public school system. Superintendents nationwide comprised the population of the 2000 study. A stratified random sample was used to select the sample population of 5,336 school superintendents. A return rate of 42.4% was collected for the survey. Useable surveys returned numbered 2,262, a total of 18% of all public school superintendents.
Four objectives were named in the 2000 study:
To provide current information on the superintendency to national, state, and local education policymakers, the media, and superintendents themselves
To provide trend data that could be compared to studies conducted in 1960, 1971, 1982, and 1992
To provide an overview of public education from the perspective of its executive leaders
To provide researchers with data and analyses about public education and the superintendent leaders in the 1990’s who will lead American public school districts into the 21st century
The survey used in the AASA 2000 study included the following data:
Personal profiles, including age, gender, family status, education and area of residence
Relationships with board members
Characteristics of school districts, size, staffing, and hiring practices
Selected community characteristics, including superintendent involvement and influence in district decision making
Superintendents’ opinions on key problems and issues confronting public education on the eve of the 21st century
The involvement and participation of women and minorities in the superintendency
Issues surrounding the preparation of superintendents and professional development of practicing superintendents.
Career patterns of superintendents
School superintendents are very satisfied and fulfilled with their jobs, despite the pressures, according to the 2000 AASA study (Glass et al., 2000). Two-thirds of school superintendents responding to whether or not they would do it all over again indicated that they would again seek the superintendency as a career choice. Only 14.9% stated that they would seek a career outside the field of education. Public Agenda (2001) found that school superintendents viewed their job as “a very viable and rewarding career”. Despite the fact that school superintendents are overall satisfied with their positions, several issues were found in the AASA 2000 study that concerned school superintendents: frustration with the red tape in their jobs, increasing constraints that new laws impose on school governance, and lack of financial funding (Glass et al., 2000).
In the 1980s, financing schools was the most severe challenge facing school superintendents, regardless of race or gender (Williams, 1984). According to the 2000 AASA report (Glass et al., 2000), school finance persists in being the number one concern of 96.7% of school superintendents. The number of items that were marked by superintendents as areas of concern has increased significantly between the AASA study in 1992 and 2000.
Many superintendents from both urban and rural school districts indicated a great deal of concern about the excessive demands on their time. The effect of state assessment programs and mandated reform legislation was reflected in superintendent responses on items concerning accountability/credibility, changing priorities in curriculum, and compliance. Public Agenda (2001) found that 90% of superintendents believed that dealing with local, state, and federal mandates took too much of their time away from other vital issues. Many school superintendents stated that they believed extra duties had been added to their already overloaded schedules over the past decade.
Three more areas were reported as factors that inhibited the effectiveness of the superintendent’s performance. Glass (2000) found that stress levels had increased considerably as perceived by school superintendents in the 2000 ASAA study, showing a disturbing trend. Over half, 51.5% of all reporting school superintendents, indicated they believed either considerable or very great stress in the superintendency. Another 40.9% indicated a moderate level of stress.
Minority superintendents thought that discrimination was still a major problem. In 1992, 59.7% of minority superintendents the American Association of School Administrators reported that racial discrimination was a problem, while in 2000, 46.9% stated the same (Glass et al., 2000). Even though the percentage of African American superintendents who believe that racial discrimination was an issue decreased, almost half of the minority school superintendents reported there were discriminatory hiring practices, indicating that there was still a long way to go in this aspect. Wenner (1998) found that several superintendents employed in Wisconsin stated they need not bother applying for certain suburban and rural superintendencies because they would not be hired for those positions. These opinions appeared to confirm a disturbing pattern of discrimination since candidates of color were excluded from being considered for positions in certain areas. Wenner reported vast differences in existed perceptions of racial discrimination between minorities and non-minorities. Only 10.1% of non-minority school superintendents reported a problem with discriminatory hiring practices.
Future of the Superintendency
According to the 2000 AASA study, for the superintendency to endure into the twenty-first century, school superintendents must be role models, leading their district with a heightened sense of professionalism in order to enhance the influence they have on policy changes in the future (Glass et al., 2000). The importance of preparing future school superintendents for the profession cannot be ignored. It is clear that as society becomes more complex and expectations concerning the preparedness of individuals leaving the public school system and entering the workplace rise, school superintendents must be prepared to lead their district towards higher standards in both the uses of technology and standardized testing.
Although many school superintendents were reported as saying that they believed their preparation programs were “good” (Glass et al., 2000), much of the current literature on the preparation of school superintendents is negative. Superintendents who responded to the survey indicated a need to substantially re-structure the school superintendent preparation programs (Glass et al., 2000), and such re-structuring or reincarnation of superintendent preparation and training is certainly one of the top challenges facing the profession in the twenty-first century.
One serious issue that must be addressed more accurately in educational administration classes is diversity and the effects of a diverse district/campus. Cormier (2003) found that minority and female principals had higher trust levels for their African American superintendents than their European American male counterparts did. Cormier’s (2003) study found that different races were motivated by different things. African Americans were motivated by leaders who shared information and created a risk free environment, as well as monetary rewards. Hispanics were motivated by intrinsic rewards, such as verbal and written compliments. European Americans were highly motivated by monetary rewards. The issue of communication came up in Cormier’s study that found the need to address raising the achievement levels of minority students had to be stressed to European American principals more than once. Based on these findings, it is imperative that training and staff development addressing diversity issues be provided to all staff.
The 2000 AASA study predicted that superintendents will need to revert to the role they had in the nineteenth century as protectors of public education. “The dream of Horace Mann, and other founders of the concept of public education, will be seriously challenged in the twenty-first century” (Glass et al., 2000, p. 6). This statement relates to the many challenges that public education has recently had to face, such as vouchers, charter schools, home schooling, criticisms of public education from political sources, and the efforts to take funds away from public schooling.
Glass (2000) predicts that in the coming decade, thousands of individuals will complete superintendent preparation programs. Individuals who complete the program may not actually become superintendents. According to the AASA 2000 report, many superintendents view the position as impossible and the salary and benefits inadequate. This is contributing to the declining pool of applicants for the superintendent positions (Glass et al., 2000).
Glass (2000) asserts that in the future, the theme of “continuing partnership” between school boards and superintendents will be followed. The role of the superintendent will consist primarily of managing the business of the district and being the leading facilitator of school district policy. In order for the superintendency to endure and prosper into the twenty-first century, individuals will need to serve as role models, inspire trust, maintain high levels of self-confidence and optimism, and model high standards of integrity and personal performance to increase their authority in policymaking at both the local and state level.
School superintendents will need to draw political support by embracing the need for changes in curriculum and educational technology clearly aligned with the mission and vision of the school district. A focus on the future that involves the community members and all stakeholders, both inside and outside the school district, will make the job of the superintendent stand the duration of time (Glass et al., 2000).
The 2000 AASA study found significant demographic trends pertaining to the future of the position. From 1950 to 1992, the average age of a superintendent was between 48 and 50. By 2000, research discovered that the average age of school superintendents has increased to 52.5 (Glass et al., 2000) leading to predictions that a shortage of superintendents will occur when the current group of superintendents starts to retire because the applicant pool has been decreasing over recent years. Consequently, new positions should open up for minorities and woman in the school superintendency (Glass et al., 2000).
The challenge for young African American school administrators in the twenty-first century is the same as it was for their predecessors:
To continue the productive legacy of black administrators while
fighting more subtle, but just as damaging, forms of racism in both
the educational academies and the private sectors of American
society. They must accept, as did their forefathers, the challenge to
keep the rich legacy of black educational achievements alive, not only for themselves, but for future generations (Smith & Joshua, 2003, p. 178).
Summary
Diversity in student population is an increasing reality in today’s school systems. A need for diverse representation at the leadership levels in today’s public schools is apparent. It is critically important for children to see that African American leaders exist. The community needs African American school superintendents to serve not only as role models but as educational leaders who can provide experience and encourage learning environments for every child in the school system.
Even though many strides have been made towards improving the representation of African American school superintendents, there still lies a disparity in percentages in school districts across the nation (Keller, 1999). The review of literature discusses the historical foundations of the superintendency. Further research needs to be conducted due to the lack of current studies on the African American Superintendent. “We know less about school superintendents than any other set of chief executives in the nation,” stated X. P. Montenegro (cited by Keller, 1999). Research concerning African American school superintendents is extremely limited. Studies that exist discuss the history of the superintendency, the history of both African American male and female superintendents, the role of the superintendency, and the future of the superintendency.
Gary Bates, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
During the 2004 school year, the National Alliance of Black School Educators (NABSE) found that more than a quarter of the African American student population was educated in a district led by an African American school superintendent. More than half of the students in these districts were low-income and over half of the districts were in urban areas. These superintendents have contributed greatly in closing the achievement gap among minority, low-income, and more advantaged students by raising the academic achievement of their students (Dawkins, 2004).
With only two percent of the nation’s public school districts led by African American school superintendents, there is a need to increase the number of African American school superintendents in order to help erase the achievement gap (NABSE, 2005). This study will assist in this effort by increasing the awareness of concerns that are specific to African American school superintendents.
An examination of the literature revealed minimal current information specifically related to African American school superintendents. Available literature included materials on the history of the school superintendency, the history of the African American school superintendent, the history of the African American female school superintendent, the role of the school superintendent, and the future of school superintendency.
The History of the School Superintendency
New York was the first state to appoint a school superintendent in 1812 (Brubacher, 1947). The position of school district superintendency was first created in Buffalo and Louisville in 1837 and Providence and St. Louis in 1839 (Moehlman, 1940). Superintendents at this time were primarily responsible for the management and distribution of the state’s common school fund, as well as manage funds for the school district. During this time, public schools were considered separate entities and independently controlled their own decisions and curriculum.
Early school superintendents faced significant challenges. One of the most important challenges was ensuring the continued existence of a public education for all. Many of the first school superintendents accepted the school superintendent position in support of the “common school” movement. Although many times these positions were filled by non-educators, these individuals were considered to be “true educational reformers” (Glass, 2000), traveling to promote the idea of a common education to all children and raising money for their school districts.
By the early 1900’s, most of the city districts had public school superintendents who were generally appointed by the local school board (Campbell, 1980). These positions were more fully defined in the twentieth century, though it was very difficult to find consistency in job requirements because many districts were extremely small. Consequently, the occupation of school superintendent was defined by the needs of the district. Early school superintendents were not given the responsibility of educating children, but rather were held accountable for other areas of school business, such as upkeep of school property, allocating school supplies, distributing funds to needed areas, and record keeping. Over time, the role of the school superintendent developed to include curriculum and instructional methods (Harris, 1892).
In the twenty-first century, the position of school superintendent has evolved so that school superintendents are considered the “expert” on schools in the community. The school superintendent is looked upon by both school boards and district employees as the expert in knowledge and leadership that will direct the district and students to success. As districts consolidate and grow, the position of school superintendent has become a significant appointment with a number of individuals vying for a vacancy. It is important to define positive characteristics of a successful school superintendent.
One valuable asset that a successful school superintendent should have is the concept of the “big picture”. While teachers have to be aware of the classroom and students and principals must be concerned with the school, parents, and school activities, the school superintendent has to have an extended view of the district, recognizing the importance of each individual classroom, each school, and the interplay of every element that it takes for the district to be successful. Consequently, a school superintendent has to have a working knowledge of many variables. School superintendents cannot concern themselves with just one thing; they must involve themselves in the many aspects of leading a district (Sharp & Walter, 1997).
Jackson (1995) acknowledged the three primary roles of the superintendent as public official, politician, and manager. In the role of the public official, the superintendent has to please the community, the city representatives, and the school board. Two significant attributes that should symbolize the relationship between the superintendent and the school board are trust and hope. The board trusts the superintendent will bring the qualities and credentials from previous experience necessary to the district and hopes those qualities and credentials will result in the ability to develop and communicate a vision of quality education for the future to the board, staff, and community (Scott, 1980).
Over time, the position of the school superintendent has become more political (Glass, 2000). In the role of politician, the superintendent must negotiate agreements, build trusting partnerships between the community and the school, and try to stay abreast of state and national politics (Johnson, 1996). In order to be successful as a school superintendent, educational leaders must be able to recognize and work around the political goals of others.
The role of school superintendent was first developed to manage the business of the school district and that role has not changed over time. School superintendents must be able to plan, organize, coordinate, lead, instruct, and command (Robbins, 2000). Superintendents must be able to creatively plan a clear vision for the district and coordinate and lead the district towards success in order to be considered a competent manager (Cormier, 2003). To ensure success, superintendents must be adequately experienced and prepared.
Classroom teaching experience is usually the beginning of the general career path for the average school superintendent. Fifty-eight percent of school superintendents have had experience as a coach and a majority of school superintendents have secondary teaching experience. The next step to the superintendency is typically the position of assistant principal and then principal. Following the principalship, a majority of superintendents spend time as a central office administrator, as an assistant superintendent, or district coordinator. Most superintendents spend 14-17 years in the superintendency working within an average of 2-3 school districts. Average tenure of a school superintendent with one district is five to seven years, according to the 2000 American Association of School Administrators study concerning the American School Superintendency (Glass et al., 2000).
The exact number of superintendents in the United States is not known, according to the 2000 AASA study (Glass et al., 2000), because many superintendents serve in more than one district and in very small districts; therefore a superintendent may also be the school principal and may not be counted as a superintendent. Each decade, according to the AASA studies, the overall number of school superintendents drops.
History of the African American Superintendent
Public education was not available to most African Americans until the early 1900’s. In order to educate young African Americans, missionaries opened many clandestine schools in churches and homes. When they were discovered, these schools were burned down, and many teachers were tortured and ostracized by the community (Edwards, 1974). African Americans were often teachers in these schools. In one such school system, Jones and Montenegro (1982) found documents that revealed the existence of African American principals employed at the Quaker-sponsored Institute for Colored Youth in Philadelphia from 1802 to 1903.
When public education first opened to African American students, schools were usually headed by white school administrators and funded by donations from several philanthropic individuals (Jackson, 1979). Anna T. Jeanes, one such individual, left a fund specifically for the maintenance and assistance of small southern schools that educated African Americans. Described as educational leaders, individuals holding the supervisory positions for districts receiving money from the Jeanes fund were called the Jeanes Supervisors, 80% of whom were African American. These positions were used to show that African Americans could handle the responsibility of school leadership. They had limited administrative duties and mainly concerned themselves with providing an excellent education for their African American students. Later in the 1950’s the role of the Jeanes Supervisor had grown from a local to a state-wide responsibility (Jackson, 1979).
The school superintendent role was populated by white males in the first half of the twentieth century. Few comprehensive studies have been completed concerning the African American school superintendency and the specific complications experienced by African Americans. Moody (1971) and Scott (1980) were pioneers in research of the African American school superintendent.
The first comprehensive study of African American school superintendents was completed by Moody (1971). In Moody’s study, the history and the progression of the African American school superintendent and their experiences were described. This study contributed to the African American community by leading Moody to found the National Alliance of Black School Superintendents (NABSS) that is now named the National Alliance of Black School Educators (NABSE) (Dunlap, 1997). Moody’s study found that African Americans placed as superintendents of school districts were usually hired in districts that had critical issues, such as financial distress, student populations of African Americans over 50%, and low performing schools (Moody, 1971). The findings were collaborated by Edwards (1974), Jones and Montenegro (1982), and Dawkins (2004).
Hugh Scott was the next major contributor to the literature on the African American school superintendent. Scott’s study aimed at identifying and examining African American school superintendents, their background, and experiences. Later, this body of research resulted in the book The Black School Superintendent Messiah or Scapegoat? (Scott, 1980).
Great improvements have been made in the status and opportunities of African Americans because of the efforts of African Americans to change the status quo. Demonstrations and disruptions were frequently the only means of communicating the grievances that African Americans had concerning the unequal ways in which they were treated (Scott, 1980). During the late 1950’s to early 1960’s, the African American school administrator’s occupational roles where limited to Assistant Superintendent in charge of Special Projects, Director of Human Relations, or Administrative Assistant for Minority Affairs (Moody, 1971). Even though Brown vs. Board of Education (1954) struck down the Plessy vs. Ferguson’s Doctrine of “Separate, but Equal,” the struggle for desegregation continued for years, both in the courtroom and in the classroom. The desegregation of the public school system opened up additional leadership positions for African Americans in the public educational system.
Preceding the 1960’s, a majority of African American school superintendents were appointed to all-African American school districts in small southern cities. These school superintendents were not recognized in the educational literature and were mostly ignored. This continued until major urban school districts began hiring African American school superintendents. Scott (1980) found the predecessors of the African American school superintendent were Lillard Ashley of Boley, Oklahoma (1956), Lorenzo Smith of Hopkins Park, Illinois (1956), E.W. Warrior of Taft, Oklahoma (1958), and Arthur Shropshire of Kinlock, Missouri (1963).
During the civil rights movement many advances were made toward educational equality. There was a call by African American leaders and the African American public for representation in leadership positions in schools as teachers and administrators. This led to the hiring of African American school superintendents in large school districts. The first African American school superintendents of large districts were Ersel Watson of Trenton, New Jersey (1969), Marcus Foster of Oakland, California (1970), and Hugh Scott of Washington, D.C. (1970). Two African Americans were also promoted to chief state school officers during this time; John Porter appointed state superintendent for Michigan in 1969 and Wilson Riles was elected state superintendent of instruction for California in 1970.
During this time period, school districts that hired African American school superintendents tended to be plagued with serious problems, setting the superintendents up for failure from the beginning. The reason African Americans were hired as school superintendents, according to Scott (1980), was because non-minority school superintendents would not apply for these vacancies. Three years was typically the length of time an African American school superintendent would remain in the leadership position in one school district.
African American school superintendents found themselves in a precarious position. Frequently, the African American public used the moniker “Uncle Tom” to describe African American school superintendents, while many of the white community looked to the African American school superintendent as the “Black Jesus” who was going to “save” the communities schools (Edwards, 1974). Page, an African American school superintendent (1972, p. 25), wrote: “Remember, Black America, that I am not an Uncle Tom. Remember, White America, that I am no Black Jesus. Remember, all America, that I am just a man.”
During the 1970-1971 school year, Moody (1971) found 21 African American school superintendents. By 1974, Scott (1980) identified forty-four school systems lead by African American school superintendents. The American Association of School Administrators (Jones & Montenegro, 1982) conducted the first national survey during the 1982 school year that focused on the representation of minorities in school superintendent positions. This study found that less than one percent (96 out of 16,000) of the school superintendents at that time were African American.
While increases have been made in the number of African American school superintendents since the mid-1970’s, white males continue to dominate the field of educational administration and school superintendency. Even though an increase in numbers occurred, the percentage of African American superintendents in the nation does not match the percentage of African American students in the United States (NASBE, 2005).
The general career path of an African American school superintendent was twice as likely to start as a teacher, then principal, than non-minorities. Following the principalship, African Americans then pursued a central office position, working their way to superintendent (Dunlap, 1997 and Werner, 1998). While minority superintendents, according to Dunlap (1997), were just as likely as a non-minority individual to ascend to a school superintendent position from inside the district where they were currently employed, the majority of minority school superintendents came into the superintendency from another district.
African American school superintendents encountered many different factors on the road to becoming a school superintendent. The top six factors listed in order (Williams, 1984, p. 109) were:
1. Societal attitudes that African Americans lack the competency in leadership positions.
2. Racial discrimination.
3. Absence of the “old boys” network, sponsorship, or other support systems.
4. Absence of a systematic method, either formal or informal, for school districts to identify Blacks aspiring to administrative posts and/or superintendencies.
5. Predominance of non-African American employers.
6. Lack of role models.
The African American school superintendent is the most isolated and lonely of all public servants (Scott, 1980). Very few of his or her fellow colleagues are also African American. African American school superintendents cannot expect constructive criticism or advice from other non-minority school superintendents. Yet, one of the most influential forces in a community is potentially the African American school superintendent. Scott (1980) states that African American school superintendents must unite with other African American leaders to make essential changes for the betterment of the education afforded to African American students. Although African American school superintendents face grave problems, they must work diligently and be vigilant, or they will fail due to their own insufficiencies and/or from the lack of appreciation and injustice from those they serve.
Scott (1980) predicted that problems would continue for African American students and individuals in the field of education. Many believe that racist attitudes of boards and school personnel contribute to the performance deficiencies among African American students. Scott stated that noteworthy increases in the number of African American school superintendents will be a sign of the continued societal decline and increased racial isolation rather than the conscious decision by school boards to act in accordance with the principle of equal employment opportunity. A majority the participants of Wenner’s (1998) study believed that they were held to higher standards than the non-minority individuals.
The low number of African American teachers during the1980’s and early 1990’s has severely limited the pool of potential African American school administrators (Hodgkinson, 1990). Something has to be done to increase the number of minority students going into the field of education. Wenner (1998) names strategies such as mentoring, networking with other superintendents, training programs and programs that seek and encourage minorities to be educational leaders to increase the number of minority school superintendents.
In 2004, the National Alliance of Black School Educators (NABSE) completed an analysis of the demographic overview of schools lead by African American superintendents. Table 2.1 indicates that only two percent of districts were lead by African American superintendents in the United States in 2004 while 9% of students were African American.
Table 2.1 National Comparison of African American lead Districts 2004
Districts Lead by African American Superintendents Total Districts in the United States Percent Lead by African American Superintendents
Districts 313 14,559 2%
Schools
7,244
94,054
8%
Students
4,249,749
47,687,871
9%
Teachers
267,371
2,952,991
9%
Note: NABSE, 2004
Even though the number of African American applicants for superintendent is minimal, qualified applicants exist. The main problem is that most openings for African American superintendents do not exist outside of urban majority minority districts. According to Jerry Jackson (2006):
There are African Americans in the pipeline. But my
research suggests that these candidates are not pursued,
recruited, or promoted as vigorously as white candidates.
If anything there is a logjam in the pipeline. While white
candidates can take positions in both white and minority
districts, the reality is that African American candidates are
rarely considered for positions in non-minority districts (pg. 25).
The 2000 AASA study also found that 46.9% of minorities think that there is a major problem with discriminatory hiring practices (Glass et al., 2000). This double standard must be remedied for the betterment of the educational system.
History of the African American Woman School Superintendent
Most studies concerning the school superintendency have relied solely on research focused on white, male superintendents. Nevertheless, during the past 20 years, researchers have placed greater importance on race and gender (Hosier, 2002). Shakeshaft (1989) found that a major reason women are underrepresented in the field of school administration is because of gender discrimination caused by stereotypic attitudes toward women.
While African American women held positions as teachers and principals, there is only one documented case of an African American woman holding a position of school superintendent before the 1970’s; Velma Dolphin Ashley, was superintendent of the Boley, Oklahoma school district from 1944 – 1956. There were no women superintendents referenced in Moody’s 1971 study. The number of African American women school superintendents increased to 5 in 1978, 11 in 1982, and 25 in 1986 (Revere, 1989). At first, African American women school superintendents, just like African American males, were employed in major urban school districts, such as New York, Chicago, Detroit, Washington, D.C., and Cleveland. As the number of minority students increased and moved to the suburbs, leadership positions in smaller districts opened up to African American women. It appears that the number of African American women school superintendents started to decline during the late 1990’s due to sexism, racism, social ills, conflicts with school boards, family obligations, low student achievement, and retirement (Hosier, 2002). This is further supported by “The 2000 Study of the American School Superintendency” that reported there were 15 African American women school superintendents, that is approximately .01% of total school superintendents (Glass et al., 2000).
Research specifically on African American women serving as superintendents is limited but growing. Some studies relate to women in general in the school superintendency within a subsection concerning minorities. When a woman becomes a superintendent, she frequently finds herself “between a rock and a hard place” because of the often invisible sexism in society. Skrla (1998) reported that “Everything she does to enhance her assertiveness risks undercutting her femininity, in the eyes of others. And everything she does to fit the expectations of how a woman should take risks undercutting the impression of competence that she makes” (p.3).
Jackson (1995) investigated African American women school superintendents from 1984 –1994. She found four common themes concerning the advancement of African American women school superintendents and how they felt about each theme.
The first theme concerned the fact that African American women had the support and experience they needed to be successful, even though they were limited in their power just as white school superintendents observed
The second theme was African American women believed they were making a difference and were optimistic about their futures
The third theme consisted of the fact the school superintendency was a position where one lived their “life in a fishbowl” and the acceptance that the women had for their jobs
The fourth theme was the discreditation of the popular misconception that African American women were not as well trained or as good at their jobs
Studies have reported that a majority of women school superintendents came from an elementary background and began their administrative careers in elementary schools (Brunner, 1999; Glass et al., 2000). A 2000 AASA study also revealed that women school superintendents believed their connections helped them to get the positions they were in at the time. Women were four times more likely to think that discriminatory practices were barriers to women in attaining superintendencies. Such discriminatory factors identified by the 2000 AASA study (Glass et al., 2000) included the perceptions of board members that women are not strong mangers, that women do not understand finance and budget issues, and that women allow emotions to influence decisions.
African American women who seek the school superintendency find the position difficult to attain. Silver (1978) asserted the small number of female school superintendents was thought to listen to the whims of the foundation of the communities who select school superintendents. Even when they were hired as a superintendent, it was in districts that had poorly managed schools and they were generally used as scapegoats (Yeakey, Johnston, & Adkison, 1986). As an isolated group, African American women are almost non-existent in the top administrative level of public school districts. This remains true even though from years 1985 to 2000 the number of women in professional preparation programs has surpassed the number of men in these programs (Glass et al., 2000).
Role of the Superintendent
Perhaps the single most important primary objective for a school superintendent is to provide for the safety and education of children. While the role and purpose of the school superintendent often varies from district to district, school superintendents must create the leadership climate for the entire school system.
The roles of school superintendent and business executive have many similarities; they both must generate quality results or endure condemnation and/or termination. The public school superintendent has many individuals to please, such as students, parents, teachers, principals, the community, and the school board (Zemlicka, 2001). As the chief executive officer of a school district, the school superintendent must provide leadership and a sense of stability for both the community and the school system. Modern-day school superintendents must not only have the essential technical and administrative skills but must also be able to deal with controversial issues (Scott, 1980). The school superintendent is a supervisor of conflict. The school superintendent must possess a sense of society’s complexity. School superintendents must be able to analyze and interpret social issues and transform these issues into public school policy all within the current environment of high stakes testing.
Campbell, Cunningham, Nystrand, & Usdan (1990) asserted that school superintendents do not have many powers given to them by state legislatures. The power as superintendent is given by the district’s school board. While the power of superintendents has diminished over time, they still hold great control on the workings of a school district. School superintendents have the capacity to develop and control the flow of information in the district; they can analyze this information to plan and mediate for the district’s future. Superintendents spent 80% of their time talking with others, dealing with technical information, legal rules and regulations, past activities of the district, preferences of different people, and possible consequences for different decisions (Campbell et al., 1990). These activities seem to be largely deskwork, telephone calls, and scheduled and unscheduled meetings.
The relationship between the board of education and the superintendent is vitally important, not only regarding the job security of the school superintendent but also for the efficient management of the school district. The school board and the superintendent must build a trusting relationship so that together they can create a successful cooperative atmosphere for the school district (Sharp & Walter, 1997). Sharp and Walter (1997) stated that superintendents and school boards should spend some time together to discuss types of decisions they both will be involved in making. It is suggested these decisions should be placed into one of five categories:
1) The superintendent has complete authority to act, within board policy.
2) The superintendent has complete authority to act, but must inform the board of the action.
3) The superintendent has authority to act only with prior approval from the board.
4) The superintendent makes recommendations, but the decision is up to the board.
5) The superintendent does not participate in the decision.
Superintendents and school boards must find a way to work together to establish a good working relationship. Each have a distinct role, but they must work as a team and establish a good relationship with few misunderstandings. School superintendents need to remember that things are not equal (Sharp and Walter, 1997). The school board has all of the power, holds all of the votes, hires and fires the superintendent, and makes decisions on raises and length of contracts. School boards decide how much power a school superintendent may possess in the decision-making process of a school district (Scott, 1980). When the board and the school superintendent cannot come to an agreement, the board will have the final say. Once the school board has established policy, it is the school superintendent’s responsibility to administer these policies district-wide. Often there are differences between the views of school boards and school superintendents.
Though at times school superintendents and school boards may have significant disagreements over power boundaries, the school superintendent needs the school board to back ideas. It is vital that the relationship with the school board is successful for a school superintendent to be successful. Without clear, specific dialogue between the roles of the school superintendents and the school boards, tension and conflict in many school districts across the nation is a part of daily life.
If school boards and school superintendents are to keep hold of their historical leadership positions, it will be necessary to continue the process of board training and school superintendent preparation. Each entity must also examine whether their current roles and activities are consistent with the mission and vision of the school systems of the twenty-first century (Glass et al., 2000).
Current Issues with the Superintendency
The American Association of School Administrators (AASA) has created a report on the characteristics and challenges of the American school superintendent nearly every ten years since the 1920’s. The first study was dated from 1921-1922 and published in 1923. Subsequent studies were completed in 1933, 1952, 1960, 1971, 1982, 1992, and 2000. A study was not completed in the 1940’s because of World War II (Knezevich, 1984). Even though the content and direction has varied, these studies have contributed vital details that have assisted researchers in understanding the role and challenges of school superintendency.
The economy and its effect on education was the focus of the 1933 study. The similarities and differences between rural and urban school superintendents was the center of the 1952 study. In 1960, the study was written in yearbook style and discussed how to prepare to become a superintendent. The study of 1971 changed the format of the research completely and consisted of over 100 questions. Questions from the 1971 study were adapted and used in the 1982, 1992, and 2000 studies. This has allowed comparisons among the subsequent years.
Herein, comparisons were made between the data collected on superintendents nationwide in “The 2000 Study of the American School Superintendency” (Glass et. al, 2000) and the data collected from this study concerning African American school superintendents nationwide. Detailed information on the AASA 2000 study is listed in this subsection of the review of literature. “The 2000 Study of the American School Superintendency” (Glass et al., 2000) was conducted through an 86 item survey mailed in 1999 to currently employed school superintendents in the United States public school system. Superintendents nationwide comprised the population of the 2000 study. A stratified random sample was used to select the sample population of 5,336 school superintendents. A return rate of 42.4% was collected for the survey. Useable surveys returned numbered 2,262, a total of 18% of all public school superintendents.
Four objectives were named in the 2000 study:
To provide current information on the superintendency to national, state, and local education policymakers, the media, and superintendents themselves
To provide trend data that could be compared to studies conducted in 1960, 1971, 1982, and 1992
To provide an overview of public education from the perspective of its executive leaders
To provide researchers with data and analyses about public education and the superintendent leaders in the 1990’s who will lead American public school districts into the 21st century
The survey used in the AASA 2000 study included the following data:
Personal profiles, including age, gender, family status, education and area of residence
Relationships with board members
Characteristics of school districts, size, staffing, and hiring practices
Selected community characteristics, including superintendent involvement and influence in district decision making
Superintendents’ opinions on key problems and issues confronting public education on the eve of the 21st century
The involvement and participation of women and minorities in the superintendency
Issues surrounding the preparation of superintendents and professional development of practicing superintendents.
Career patterns of superintendents
School superintendents are very satisfied and fulfilled with their jobs, despite the pressures, according to the 2000 AASA study (Glass et al., 2000). Two-thirds of school superintendents responding to whether or not they would do it all over again indicated that they would again seek the superintendency as a career choice. Only 14.9% stated that they would seek a career outside the field of education. Public Agenda (2001) found that school superintendents viewed their job as “a very viable and rewarding career”. Despite the fact that school superintendents are overall satisfied with their positions, several issues were found in the AASA 2000 study that concerned school superintendents: frustration with the red tape in their jobs, increasing constraints that new laws impose on school governance, and lack of financial funding (Glass et al., 2000).
In the 1980s, financing schools was the most severe challenge facing school superintendents, regardless of race or gender (Williams, 1984). According to the 2000 AASA report (Glass et al., 2000), school finance persists in being the number one concern of 96.7% of school superintendents. The number of items that were marked by superintendents as areas of concern has increased significantly between the AASA study in 1992 and 2000.
Many superintendents from both urban and rural school districts indicated a great deal of concern about the excessive demands on their time. The effect of state assessment programs and mandated reform legislation was reflected in superintendent responses on items concerning accountability/credibility, changing priorities in curriculum, and compliance. Public Agenda (2001) found that 90% of superintendents believed that dealing with local, state, and federal mandates took too much of their time away from other vital issues. Many school superintendents stated that they believed extra duties had been added to their already overloaded schedules over the past decade.
Three more areas were reported as factors that inhibited the effectiveness of the superintendent’s performance. Glass (2000) found that stress levels had increased considerably as perceived by school superintendents in the 2000 ASAA study, showing a disturbing trend. Over half, 51.5% of all reporting school superintendents, indicated they believed either considerable or very great stress in the superintendency. Another 40.9% indicated a moderate level of stress.
Minority superintendents thought that discrimination was still a major problem. In 1992, 59.7% of minority superintendents the American Association of School Administrators reported that racial discrimination was a problem, while in 2000, 46.9% stated the same (Glass et al., 2000). Even though the percentage of African American superintendents who believe that racial discrimination was an issue decreased, almost half of the minority school superintendents reported there were discriminatory hiring practices, indicating that there was still a long way to go in this aspect. Wenner (1998) found that several superintendents employed in Wisconsin stated they need not bother applying for certain suburban and rural superintendencies because they would not be hired for those positions. These opinions appeared to confirm a disturbing pattern of discrimination since candidates of color were excluded from being considered for positions in certain areas. Wenner reported vast differences in existed perceptions of racial discrimination between minorities and non-minorities. Only 10.1% of non-minority school superintendents reported a problem with discriminatory hiring practices.
Future of the Superintendency
According to the 2000 AASA study, for the superintendency to endure into the twenty-first century, school superintendents must be role models, leading their district with a heightened sense of professionalism in order to enhance the influence they have on policy changes in the future (Glass et al., 2000). The importance of preparing future school superintendents for the profession cannot be ignored. It is clear that as society becomes more complex and expectations concerning the preparedness of individuals leaving the public school system and entering the workplace rise, school superintendents must be prepared to lead their district towards higher standards in both the uses of technology and standardized testing.
Although many school superintendents were reported as saying that they believed their preparation programs were “good” (Glass et al., 2000), much of the current literature on the preparation of school superintendents is negative. Superintendents who responded to the survey indicated a need to substantially re-structure the school superintendent preparation programs (Glass et al., 2000), and such re-structuring or reincarnation of superintendent preparation and training is certainly one of the top challenges facing the profession in the twenty-first century.
One serious issue that must be addressed more accurately in educational administration classes is diversity and the effects of a diverse district/campus. Cormier (2003) found that minority and female principals had higher trust levels for their African American superintendents than their European American male counterparts did. Cormier’s (2003) study found that different races were motivated by different things. African Americans were motivated by leaders who shared information and created a risk free environment, as well as monetary rewards. Hispanics were motivated by intrinsic rewards, such as verbal and written compliments. European Americans were highly motivated by monetary rewards. The issue of communication came up in Cormier’s study that found the need to address raising the achievement levels of minority students had to be stressed to European American principals more than once. Based on these findings, it is imperative that training and staff development addressing diversity issues be provided to all staff.
The 2000 AASA study predicted that superintendents will need to revert to the role they had in the nineteenth century as protectors of public education. “The dream of Horace Mann, and other founders of the concept of public education, will be seriously challenged in the twenty-first century” (Glass et al., 2000, p. 6). This statement relates to the many challenges that public education has recently had to face, such as vouchers, charter schools, home schooling, criticisms of public education from political sources, and the efforts to take funds away from public schooling.
Glass (2000) predicts that in the coming decade, thousands of individuals will complete superintendent preparation programs. Individuals who complete the program may not actually become superintendents. According to the AASA 2000 report, many superintendents view the position as impossible and the salary and benefits inadequate. This is contributing to the declining pool of applicants for the superintendent positions (Glass et al., 2000).
Glass (2000) asserts that in the future, the theme of “continuing partnership” between school boards and superintendents will be followed. The role of the superintendent will consist primarily of managing the business of the district and being the leading facilitator of school district policy. In order for the superintendency to endure and prosper into the twenty-first century, individuals will need to serve as role models, inspire trust, maintain high levels of self-confidence and optimism, and model high standards of integrity and personal performance to increase their authority in policymaking at both the local and state level.
School superintendents will need to draw political support by embracing the need for changes in curriculum and educational technology clearly aligned with the mission and vision of the school district. A focus on the future that involves the community members and all stakeholders, both inside and outside the school district, will make the job of the superintendent stand the duration of time (Glass et al., 2000).
The 2000 AASA study found significant demographic trends pertaining to the future of the position. From 1950 to 1992, the average age of a superintendent was between 48 and 50. By 2000, research discovered that the average age of school superintendents has increased to 52.5 (Glass et al., 2000) leading to predictions that a shortage of superintendents will occur when the current group of superintendents starts to retire because the applicant pool has been decreasing over recent years. Consequently, new positions should open up for minorities and woman in the school superintendency (Glass et al., 2000).
The challenge for young African American school administrators in the twenty-first century is the same as it was for their predecessors:
To continue the productive legacy of black administrators while
fighting more subtle, but just as damaging, forms of racism in both
the educational academies and the private sectors of American
society. They must accept, as did their forefathers, the challenge to
keep the rich legacy of black educational achievements alive, not only for themselves, but for future generations (Smith & Joshua, 2003, p. 178).
Summary
Diversity in student population is an increasing reality in today’s school systems. A need for diverse representation at the leadership levels in today’s public schools is apparent. It is critically important for children to see that African American leaders exist. The community needs African American school superintendents to serve not only as role models but as educational leaders who can provide experience and encourage learning environments for every child in the school system.
Even though many strides have been made towards improving the representation of African American school superintendents, there still lies a disparity in percentages in school districts across the nation (Keller, 1999). The review of literature discusses the historical foundations of the superintendency. Further research needs to be conducted due to the lack of current studies on the African American Superintendent. “We know less about school superintendents than any other set of chief executives in the nation,” stated X. P. Montenegro (cited by Keller, 1999). Research concerning African American school superintendents is extremely limited. Studies that exist discuss the history of the superintendency, the history of both African American male and female superintendents, the role of the superintendency, and the future of the superintendency.
Gary Bates, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER III
METHOD
Introduction
Leadership of the American public educational system is mainly comprised of white middle-class individuals, while a growing number of the student population of public schools is that of lower socio-economic status and minority persons (Thernstrom & Thernstrom, 2003). In order to change the status quo, representation by minorities in leadership positions in the educational system is necessary. For this to be successful, the experiences of African American educational leaders must be studied and compared with the experiences of other educational leaders.
The primary purpose of this study was to investigate what factors contributed to an African American becoming a school superintendent and retaining that position, in the opinion of a randomly selected group of African American school superintendents. A comparison of the statistics of data concerning current African American school superintendents was compared with the data concerning school superintendents studied by the American Association of School Administrators, 2000. Findings will assist African Americans presently in education who are motivated in becoming a school superintendent. The data compared included gender, age, marital status, level of education attained, number of years as a superintendent, and factors that inhibit effectiveness. This study also sought to discern whether African American superintendents perceive race as a barrier in obtaining the superintendency. A secondary purpose of this study was to discover if there is a difference in perceptions between African American superintendents, superintendents who participated in the 2000 AASA study, and African American superintendents that participated in Williams’ study of 1984. The third purpose of this study was to create a profile of a successful African American school superintendent to assist potential African American superintendents in their endeavor of becoming a leader in education.
Research Questions
Quantitative
1. What are the personal characteristics of currently employed African American school superintendents?
2. Is there a significant difference in the frequencies of the top five ranked factors that inhibit effectiveness of all superintendents in the 2000 AASA study and the responses of African American superintendents in 2006?
3. Is there a significant difference in the frequencies of the factors encountered en route to the superintendency by African American superintendents in the early 1980’s and African American superintendents in 2006?
Qualitative
4. What are the problems in leading a school district identified by African American school superintendents? Is race a factor?
5. What are the barriers to career advancement for African Americans in the superintendency?
6. What qualities or characteristics are vital to the success of an African American school superintendent?
Null Hypotheses
H01 There will be no statistically significant difference in the frequencies of the top five ranked factors that inhibit effectiveness of all superintendents in the 2000 AASA study and the responses of African American superintendents in 2006.
H02 There will be no statistical significant difference in the frequencies of the factors encountered en route to the superintendency by African American superintendents in early 1980’s and African American superintendents in 2006.
Research Design
A combination of both qualitative and quantitative measurements were used in the study.
Qualitative data are collected in the form of words or pictures rather
than numbers. The kinds of data collected in qualitative research include
interview transcripts, field notes, photographs, audio recordings,
videotapes, diaries, personal comments, memos, official records,
textbook passages, and anything else that can convey the actual words
or actions of people (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003, p. 431).
Quantitative data are at the other end of the scale, “the interval or ratio levels of measurement are concerned with amounts” (Sirkin, 2006, p.35). Data were collected using a combination of the three part survey created for a similar study by Dr. Thomas Lloyd Williams in 1984 and questions from the 2000 American Association of School Administrators’ study.
Quantitative
Quantitative data were collected using all three parts of the online survey (See Appendix C). The results of the first and third part of the survey were used to find descriptive statistics to describe the specified population. The second part of the survey utilized a 4-point Likert-type instrument. This section of the survey asked participants to address factors that were encountered while working towards the superintendency and might have affected their job performance. These data were compared with the data collected by Dr. Thomas L. Williams (1984) while completing his dissertation concerning African American superintendents.
Qualitative
Qualitative data were obtained through both an online survey and interviews conducted by both phone and email. The link to the online survey was emailed to randomly selected African American school superintendents. A short answer, checklist, comparison of factors, and rating format were used in the survey. Section one of the survey requested the study participants review a list of 18 issues identified by the American Association of School Administrators. The participants then rated the issues from 1 to 18, one being the most important and eighteen being the least important. Section three (short answer and check format) of the survey obtained data pertaining to personal characteristics and career experience. Additional qualitative information was obtained through either a phone interview or email that used five open-ended questions concerning experiences specific to the target population.
Population
Quantitative
The target population for this study was African American school superintendents employed with public school districts in the United States during the 2006-2007 school year. Borg, Borg, and Gall (2003) stated that if sampling is done properly, researchers can make inferences from the sample to an entire population and are likely to be correct within a small margin of error. A national data base of African America public school superintendents created by the National Alliance of Black School Educators (NABSE, 2005) was used for the research. While creating the national data base NABSE found that as of November, 2005, seventeen states (34 %) were reported as having zero African American school superintendents (NABSE, 2005). The NABSE national data base was used to obtain the names and school information for each school superintendent.
The researcher called each district listed by NABSE as having an African American superintendent to verify the district’s superintendent was African American in order to gain a more precise and complete population frame. The researcher found that many changes had occurred since the printing of the NABSE 2005 directory. Sixty-six of the listed districts were no longer under the leadership of an African American superintendent, thirty-eight districts changed leadership to another African American superintendent, while forty-four districts could not be verified. Each of the identified African American superintendents from the NABSE national directory were sent a request to participate in the study and the link to the survey by email (See Appendix A). The entire identified population of African American superintendents was solicited to participate in the survey.
Qualitative
Qualitative data were taken from a random sample of the population used for the quantitative data: African American school superintendents currently employed with school districts in the United States. Once the surveys were returned by the participating African American school superintendents, a number was assigned to each individual and the data collected. A random selection feature in SPSS 12.0 was utilized to select thirty of the survey participants for interviews to be used for the qualitative portion of the study. Twenty eight out of the thirty superintendents who participated in the survey agreed to participate in the interviews.
Instrumentation
Portions of the survey used in the study were originally created for the American Association of School Administrators. Many of the questionnaire items were brought forth from surveys conducted in 1990, 1980, and some as far back as the 1930s (T. E. Glass, personal communication, March 7, 2006). The 1980 AASA questionnaire was adapted, revised and used by Dr. Thomas L. Williams in his 1984 study. The questionnaire used a combination of 4-point Likert-type scale responses, check format, and short answer (See Appendix C). Comparable questions were on the 2000 AASA questionnaire. The second section of the survey utilized a Likert-type scale. This section was adapted from Dr. Williams’ 1984 survey.
A letter of introduction to the study and consent form was e-mailed to all identified African American public school superintendents in the United States (See Appendix A). Participating superintendents were directed to proceed to the survey using the given link www.surveymonkey.com. Survey Monkey is a website that provides survey software which enables professional online surveys to be used by members.
After the letter of introduction and consent were e-mailed, a follow-up e-mail was sent a week later to the members of the population who had not replied to the survey (See Appendix A). After two weeks, the researcher followed up with a phone call to each of the school superintendents who had not replied to the questionnaire. A personalized thank you note was emailed to each of the participants of this study after the questionnaire was returned (See Appendix A).
Each of the returned questionnaires was assigned an identification number. This process was used to monitor response rates. The use of this coding system was used for more efficient management of the data collected and to assist in the confidentiality and reliability of the study (Dunlap, 1997). All data collected for the study were stored in a locked box in a secure location in the researcher’s place of residence. Seven years after the study, the data collected from African American school superintendents will be shredded, discarded, and destroyed.
Quantitative
Descriptive statistics were done using the information gained from sections one and three of the survey and utilized for quantitative data. Section two gave respondents the opportunity to concentrate on sixteen factors that might have influenced them as superintendents or their careers as they progressed in the education profession. Items were designed to use a 4-point Likert-type scale response.
Qualitative
Section one of the survey listed eighteen issues in alphabetical order that were identified by the American Association of School Administrators as concerns of school superintendents. School superintendents were asked to examine the list and prioritize each item on the list from 1, the most important to them, to 18, the least important. School superintendents were given specific directions in order to assist them in making the choices easier. Section three of the survey requested information concerning the superintendent’s personal and educational background and consists of 21 questions that could be used for qualitative data.
Pilot Study
Quantitative
Using the NABSE directory of African American school superintendents created November, 2005, as the population for the study, a number was assigned to each African American superintendent. The directory lists each superintendent alphabetically by state. A random sample of 40 numbers was generated by the random number feature in SPSS 12.0. The first thirty were contacted to participate in the pilot study but seven declined. The next seven in line from the list of random numbers generated were used to complete the study. A pilot study was conducted using a sample of 30 African American superintendents. The pilot participants were not a part of the actual study. An item analysis was applied to the data and obtained a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .84. A Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .62 was required to establish reliability.
Qualitative
The interview questions and guided conversation approach were piloted to establish that the interview questions were clearly worded (See Appendix D). The interviewer was afforded the opportunity to practice the techniques of the interview process. Five African American superintendents were randomly selected for this portion of the pilot study.
Validity
Validity is one of the most important components of any measurement. It includes the appropriateness of the analysis derived from the test scores or outcomes (Gay & Airaisian, 2000). Several strategies were used to determine validity of the research instrument. A review of literature was completed to identify factors that were identified by superintendents as being areas of concerns. Each factor was then corroborated with the naturalistic interviews and the preliminary survey. The use of a survey that had been designed and used previously helps to insured that the measure has construct validity. Thomas Williams’ questionnaire (1984) was field tested by a panel of five experts for content validity. After input from the panel, the survey questionnaire was modified. A second group of “knowledgeable individuals” then reviewed the questionnaire. Their suggestions lead to the creation of the final draft of the questionnaire (Williams, 1984).
Content validity of the interview questions was checked by a panel of five experts. Each panelist evaluated the instrument for content, clarity, and appropriateness. A thorough review of the literature was carried out in defining the purpose of the study.
Reliability
Cronbach’s alpha is the statistical testing method most widely used for computing test score reliability. According to Borg, Borg, and Gall (2003) reliability is expressed numerically as a coefficient ranging from 0.0 to 1.0. The nearer the value is to one, the more reliable the measure. Reliability is the likelihood that the scale is actually measuring what it is supposed to measure (Sirkin, 2006). A Cronbach alpha score of 0.62 or better is applicable for the instrument in this situation. The Cronbach alpha for the AASA 2000 survey was 0.7888 (T. E. Glass, personal communication, March 7, 2006). A Cronbach alpha of .84 was found in the pilot study of the survey used in the study.
Analysis of Data
Quantitative
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and Microsoft EXCEL were used to analyze the quantitative data. Descriptive statistics that include frequencies, ranges, means, and standard deviations were done in the study. To test whether there was significant difference in the frequencies between the 2000 AASA data of all superintendents and the data that were acquired from African American school superintendents in 2006, this study used a Chi-Square Statistical test. The study used a Chi-Square to compare the differences in frequencies between the collected data from current African American superintendents and African American superintendents from the early 1980’s. The independent variable for the study was the superintendents used in this study, the 2000 AASA study, and the 1984 study concerning African American superintendents. The dependent variable was demographic the results of the data collected.
A Chi-Square is “the measure of squared deviations between observed and theoretical numbers in terms of frequencies in categories for cells of a table, determining whether such deviations are due to sampling error of some interdependence or correlation among the frequencies” (Issac & Michael, 1997, p.164). In order for the Chi-Square to be appropriate for use, the following assumptions must be made: two samples must be independent, samples must be random, the samples should have a sufficiently large sample size, and expected cell frequencies must be greater than 10 (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). Tests were conducted to see if there was significance at level p .
Qualitative
In order to analyze qualitative data, the researcher used an emergent category designation, cross-case analysis, peer debriefing, and triangulation. Emergent category designation involves taking the data and sorting them into categories of ideas. This allows themes of ideas to exist based intuitively on the data given (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993). Qualitative data were then coded accordingly to common themes and will be analyzed for recurring and emergent themes. This data were used to explain and enhance the statistical data drawn from the quantitative portion of the study.
Cross-case analysis consists of constructing a conceptual framework containing dominant themes and cross referencing these themes to look for similarities and differences (Maxwell, 2005). Peer debriefing consists of allowing a peer who has a general understanding of the study to listen to the researcher’s concerns and ideas. Peer debriefing was used to question the researcher’s methods and conclusions. These sessions provided the researcher with an avenue to clarify thoughts. Triangulation was used to establish if the information gathered was agreed upon generally by African American superintendents (Erlandson et al, 1993).
Summary of Method
Data concerning African American school superintendents and their experiences while becoming a school superintendent and retaining the position of school superintendent were collected for this study. Dr. Thomas L. Williams (1984) modified the AASA survey that was used in the study. A combination of 4-point Likert-type scale responses, check format, and short answers were used in the survey (See Appendix C). A letter of introduction to the study and consent form was e-mailed to all identified African American public school superintendents in the United States (See Appendix A). The letter of introduction that was e-mailed to all African American school superintendents contained a link to www.surveymonkey.com where the superintendents were directed to take the survey.
Data collected were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. A Chi-Square was used to compare the significance of the difference of frequencies between the AASA 2000 study and the data that were gathered for this study. A Chi-Square was used to compare the current data from African American superintendents with African American superintendents from 1984 to see if there was a statistical difference between data collected. A sample was selected from the responding superintendents and they were interviewed via telephone and e-mail. A profile of a successful African American school superintendent was created to assist other African Americans in the pursuit of becoming a successful school superintendent.
Gary Bates, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
Chapter V presents a summary of the study including questions addressed, the purpose and study of methods, and the major findings. Conclusions are drawn from each of the six research questions and two hypotheses posed. Recommendations for practice and recommendations for further research are included.
Summary
Problem
There is a lack of research evaluating the state of the working environment of African American school superintendents employed with public school districts in the United States. This study sought to identify the differences in experiences between current African American school superintendents and African American school superintendents employed in the early 1980’s. Correlations among the top five factors that inhibit effectiveness stated by a sample population of all superintendents employed in 2000 and African American school superintendents employed currently were also studied.
While some studies of African American school superintendents exist, the majority of these studies (Dawkins, 2004; Edwards, 1975; Hibbets, 2005; R. Johnson, 2005; Moody, 1971) focused on the experiences of the African American school superintendents in concentrated parts of the United States. These previous studies found that most African American school superintendents were hired in districts with many obstacles preventing student success within the districts. Such districts had inadequate financial resources and reputations as being “problem” schools (Scott, 1980). School districts that hired African American school superintendents tended to have high concentrations of economically disadvantaged African American students and experienced declining achievement scores on standardized tests (Moody, 1980). Dawkins (2004) identified similar results. This study seeks to find if conditions have changed for African American superintendents.
Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this investigation was to study what factors contributed to an African American becoming a school superintendent and retaining that position, in the opinion of a randomly selected group of African American school superintendents. Findings will assist African Americans presently in education who are motivated in becoming a school superintendent. This study also sought to discern whether African American superintendents perceive race as a barrier in obtaining the superintendency. Information gathered from individual experiences of current African American public school superintendents should assist educators in understanding the trials and tribulations of current African American public school superintendents and in identifying what has assisted them in overcoming obstacles. A secondary purpose of this study was to discover if there is a difference in perceptions between African American superintendents, superintendents who participated in the 2000 AASA study, and African American superintendents that participated in Williams’ study of 1984. The third purpose of this study was to create a profile of a successful African American school superintendent to assist potential African American superintendents in their endeavor of becoming a leader in education.
While in many parts of the United States, school districts are becoming increasingly diverse, there seems to be a lack of districts represented by African American school superintendents. This creates in the United States a dangerous under-representation in the public school superintendency (Saunders, 2004). The American Association of School Administrators found in 2000 that 2.2% of the respondents were African American (Glass, 2000). An analysis of the demographic overview of schools lead by African American superintendents was done by the National Alliance of Black School Educators (NABSE) in 2004. NABSE (2004) found that only two percent of districts were lead by African American superintendents in the United States in 2004 while 9% of students were African American.
In 2005, NABSE found that the number of African American superintendents had increased to 328 superintendents. This still constitutes 2% of superintendents in the United States. While completing this study the researcher found that 66 school districts no longer were under the leadership of an African American superintendent. That consists of 20% decrease in the number of African American’s holding the superintendency of a school district. This is an alarming amount of decrease for one school year.
Many African Americans have never experienced educational experiences or opportunities equivalent to what other racial groups have benefited from in the past. According to Scott (1980), the current and past social structure creates and maintains excessive socioeconomic differences that perpetuate these inequalities. Little change has occurred in the number of minority school leaders over the years, and few attempts have been made to resolve this under representation (Glass et al., 2000).
Onwueabuzie (1998) found the number of African Americans in the education profession was highest in the 1970’s, a consequence of the Brown vs. Board of Education (1954) ruling and the civil rights movement in the 1960s (Scott, 1980). Societal changes allowed African Americans to attend public schools and colleges and encouraged and improved equality in the work place. During the 1970s, education was a welcoming profession for educated African Americans, while many other fields were hard to enter (Dawkins, 2004). As additional employment opportunities became more available, African Americans began choosing career fields other than education (Wenner, 1998). This decreased the number of African Americans entering the field of education.
It is vital that changes occur to encourage an increase in the number of African Americans in the education profession. Increases in the number of opportunities in the field of education for minorities might attract more African Americans to pursue a career in education. Participation of women and minorities serving as leaders in schools is one measure of education’s real commitment to equal opportunity.
Additionally, children relate with role models that are of the same gender and race (Onwuegbuzie, 1998). More importantly, negative stereotypes decrease when individuals of different races or backgrounds assume positions of leadership and influential roles (Scott, 1990). With the No Child Left Behind Act and increasing accountability with the Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), it is imperative that leaders are identified who can lead schools into what is an uncertain future.
Research Questions
Quantitative
1. What are the personal characteristics of currently employed African American school superintendents?
2. Is there a significant difference in the frequencies of the top five ranked factors that inhibit effectiveness of all superintendents in the 2000 AASA study and the responses of African American superintendents in 2006?
3. Is there a significant difference in the frequencies of the factors encountered en route to the superintendency by African American superintendents in the early 1980’s and African American superintendents in 2006?
Qualitative
4. What are the problems in leading a school district identified by African American school superintendents? Is race a factor?
5. What are the barriers to career advancement for African Americans in the superintendency?
6. What qualities or characteristics are vital to the success of an African American school superintendent?
In order to answer the last two of the above research questions the following research hypotheses were formulated:
Null Hypotheses
H01 There will be no statistically significant difference in the frequencies of the top five ranked factors that inhibit effectiveness of all superintendents in the 2000 AASA study and the responses of African American superintendents in 2006.
H02 There will be no statistical significant difference in the frequencies of the factors encountered en route to the superintendency by African American superintendents in early 1980’s and African American superintendents in 2006?
Method
The study involved a mixed methods design. Both qualitative and quantitative measurements were used in the study. “Qualitative data are collected in the form of words or pictures rather than numbers. The kinds of data collected in qualitative research include interview transcripts, field notes, photographs, audio recordings, videotapes, diaries, personal comments, memos, official records, textbook passages, and anything else that can convey the actual words or actions of people” (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003, p. 431). Quantitative data are at the other end of the scale, “the interval or ratio levels of measurement are concerned with amounts” (Sirkin, 2005, p.35). The kinds of data collected in quantitative research include the amount of money spent on an object, SAT scores, temperatures recorded each day during a time period, and the average age of a superintendent (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). Data were collected using a combination of the three part survey created for a similar study by Thomas Lloyd Williams in 1984 and questions from the 2000 AASA study. Sixty-five African American public school superintendents participated in the survey.
Descriptive statistics were used to compile demographic information on each African American superintendent responding to the instrument. The Chi Square was calculated to determine if there was a significant difference between the data collected concerning the top five ranked challenges for superintendents by the 2000 ASAA study and the data gathered in this study. A second Chi Square was calculated to determine if a significant difference between the frequencies in ratings of the data collected in the 1984 study and the data gathered by this study.
Qualitative data were collected by personal interviews of twenty eight randomly selected African American public school superintendents across the United States. Data gleaned from these interviews were analyzed for emerging themes and coded accordingly. This data assisted in creating an overall picture of the experiences of African American public school superintendents.
Summary of Findings
Each research question is listed below with the major findings.
Research Question 1 asked: What are the personal characteristics of currently employed African American school superintendents?
This question looked at a number of features of African American superintendents such as: gender, age, highest degree obtained, marital status, type of school first employed at, extra curricular activities, age when first employed in education, number of years employed as classroom teacher, first administrative position, career path, age when employed as superintendent, number of years employed as superintendent, number of public school superintendencies, position appointed or elected, position inside or outside district employed, ethnic composition of district. Several aspects of the personal characteristics of African American school superintendents stand out for the reason that they are extremely different from the general population. It is through these differences that we can start to form a complete picture.
Gender
It was found through this study that 67.2% of African American public school superintendents were male, while 32.8% are female. This is a vast difference from the AASA 2000 study which found that 86.8% of all superintendents were male and 13.2% were female. It was observed by the 2000 AASA study that the number of female superintendents had more than doubled from the survey commissioned in 1992 (Glass et al. 2000). This is also true of the number of female African American superintendents since 1984. Williams (1984) found that 11.5% of African Americans public school superintendents were female. The surprising finding here though is that females make up one-third of the African American public school superintendents. This is very surprising when women make up only thirteen percent of the population of superintendents.
Current Age
Table 5.1 reflects the reported percentages of current age groupings: 40-44, 45-49, 50-54, 55-59, and 60-64. The table includes ages reported from studies done by AASA (2000), Williams (1984), and this study from 2006. As shown in Table 5.1, the percentages of all superintendents from the AASA 2000 study follow the pattern of a normal curve. The reported percentages of Williams (1984) study are somewhat skewed right. The reported percentages of the ages of the African American superintendents of the 2006 study are skewed left.
Table 5.1 Current Age of Superintendents in Percents
Age 2000
All Superintendents 1984
African American Superintendents 2006
African American Superintendents
40-44
7
20.5
1.6
45-49
24
24.1
9.8
50-54
34
25.3
29.5
55-59
23
13.3
37.7
60-64
10
6
14.8
The results from this data are very alarming. In 1984, Williams’ results were very encouraging for African American superintendents. There was a consistent percentage from ages 40–54 showing that there had been consistent hiring of African American superintendents. This also showed that there was a potential for growth in the overall numbers of African American superintendents. Looking at the pattern for the superintendent ages currently there is cause for concern. It appears that the numbers of superintendents from African American descent are slowly decreasing as they age further and retire the question has to be asked if there are individuals coming up currently to take their place.
Highest Degree Obtained
The data collected from this study revealed that 68.8% of African American superintendents currently have a Ph.D. or Ed.D. Another sixteen percent of African American superintendents are currently working toward their doctorate. This is a little over fifty percent more than the 45% that the 2000 AASA study found for all superintendents. This information agrees with how African American superintendents believe in relation to what the general public expects of them. Several times the respondents of this study relayed the fact that the general public had low opinions of them and that they had to work harder to gain the respect that non-minority superintendents automatically received. One superintendent responded by stating that, “I think the uniqueness of being an African American superintendent is that there are low perceptions or pre-conceptions that might exist about skill level, competence, capacity, intellectual ability, and those kinds of things.” African American superintendents have to combat this perception by obtaining the highest degrees possible so that they can be competitive with non-minorities in superintendency positions.
Marital Status
Williams (1984) found that 81.9% African American superintendents were married. At this time it was observed that non-minority superintendents were married at a higher rate. In 2000, AASA found that 92.5% of all superintendents were married but in 2006, the researcher found that 75.4% of African American superintendents were married. This is a difference that merits further study.
Grade Level at First School
Williams (1984) found that 41% of African American superintendents had taught first at the elementary level. The researcher found in 2006 that there was roughly an even spread (33%) across all three levels (elementary, junior high/middle, high school). This shows that more African American superintendents are coming from the secondary levels, at a rate that is more reflective of the general population of all superintendents.
Age When Entering Field of Education
Both this study (2006) and Williams (1984) found that there is no difference in age (23–24) when African American superintendents enter the field of education compared with all superintendents in the 1982 and 2000 American Association of School Administrator’s studies.
Number of Years Employed as Classroom Teacher
In 1984, Williams (1984) found that African American superintendents taught an average number of 7.9 years in the classroom while non-minority superintendents taught an average of 7 years. In 2000, AASA found that 37.7% of all superintendents taught 0-5 years, while 37.9% of all superintendents taught 6-10 years. This study found that African American superintendents taught on average 9.98 years. This study suggests that African American superintendents are remaining in the classroom longer than the average non-minority. The researcher also found that African Americans are staying in the classroom on average two years longer than they were in 1984.
Career Path
The majority (48.5%) of all superintendents responded in the AASA 2000 study that their career path consisted of teacher, principal, central office, then superintendent. Williams’ study in 1984 found that 46% of all superintendents also followed the same career path. In 2006, this study found that 63.9% of African American superintendents followed this career path. More African American superintendents (about 18% difference) are following a career path that potentially could take more time to reach the position of superintendency.
Age Employed in First Administrative/Supervisory Position
Williams (1984) found that the mean age of an African American superintendent employed in their first administrative/supervisory position was thirty one. In 2006 the data shows the mean age of African American superintendents employed in their first administrative/supervisory position is 33.1 years. In the 2000 AASA study, 48.5% of all superintendents gain their first administrative position before the age of thirty. In 2006, the research indicated that 34.4% of African American superintendents obtain their first administrative position before the age of thirty.
Number of Years Employed as a Public School Superintendent
In the 2000 AASA study, it was reported that the median years for all public school superintendents to be employed as a superintendent was between eight and nine years. In the 2006 data, it was discovered that the median years for African Americans to be employed as a superintendent is between four and six years. This confirms the earlier findings that non-minority superintendents are maintaining the position of superintendent longer than African American superintendents.
Other Characteristics
Other characteristics that were compared were the following: first administrative position, number of public school superintendency positions held, elected or appointed positions, and from either inside or outside the school district. The findings of all other characteristics were essentially identical in each of the studies. To summarize the findings of other characteristics: the first administrative position held was assistant principal/principal, the majority of superintendents have held one superintendency, a majority of superintendency positions are appointed by the school board, and finally a majority of superintendents are selected from outside their current district.
Research Question 2 asked: Is there a statistically significant difference between the frequencies of the top five ranked factors that inhibit effectiveness between all superintendents in the 2000 AASA study and the responses of African American superintendents in 2006?
H01 There will be no statistically significant difference
between the frequencies of the top five ranked factors
that inhibited effectiveness between all superintendents in
the 2000 AASA study and the responses of African American
superintendents in 2006.
The purpose of this question was to test if there was a significant difference in the factors that inhibited effectiveness between all superintendents of 2000 and African American superintendents in 2006. The top five ranked factors in 2006 were:
1. Accountability/Creditability
2. Compliance with State and Federal Mandates
3. Assessing Education Outcomes
4. Financing Schools
5. Teacher Recruitment/Selection
After completing a Chi Square it was found that the null hypothesis was rejected. An analysis concerning each of the factors named is included.
Accountability/Credibility
In 2000, this factor ranked third among all superintendents and in 2006 it was ranked number one by all African American superintendents. One reason for this change could be largely due in part to the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). Districts are being held more accountable for the success of each student. One superintendent stated, “NCLB’s accountability system and its impact on minority students is a major challenge that I face in my school district”. This comes from the fact that African American superintendents are employed predominately in districts with high minority populations. An African American superintendent has an extra burden that comes with working in a high minority population school districts along with the everyday operations of a school district. Another superintendent replied that “all superintendents face these issues but as a minority superintendent, these issues are prevalent because of public perceptions”.
Compliance with the State and Federal Mandates
This factor ranked seventh among all superintendents in 2000 while in 2006 it ranked second by African American superintendents. A major reason for this difference is because school districts are trying to close the achievement gap among the diverse populations. Since many African American superintendents are in charge of districts with a high minority population the strain of this is much greater than with non-minority superintendents. One superintendent responded that:
Federal and state levels and our local community expect us to meet
all the varied needs of the learners that attend our schools. I think
the expectations are greater over all but in particular for African
American administrators and those of us who are superintendents
of districts where there is a great deal of diversity you are always
looking at some group that needs additional consideration because
here are different needs that need to be addressed.
Assessing Educational Outcomes
In 2000, this factor ranked second among all superintendents while in 2006 it was ranked third by African American superintendents. Assessing educational outcomes is an important component for all school districts during this period of accountability. The Assessment of educational outcomes can be a very long and sometimes a painful process. For positive gains and outcomes, the key to success is collaboration from the administration to classroom teachers.
Financing Schools
Financing school ranked first in 2000 among all superintendents while in 2006 it ranked fourth by African American superintendents. Funding has always been a major issue with school districts across the nation. One superintendent stated, “that many African American superintendents find themselves in districts that are financially strapped, districts that are in decline not only financially but in loss of students. They also find themselves in cities where, predominately the economic base is eroded”. Superintendents have been more creative in finding funding for their perspective districts which may be the reason why superintendents ranked it fourth in 2006. One creative way that districts are finding increased income mentioned during an interview was grant writing for special projects.
Teacher Recruiting/Selection
In 2000 this factor ranked eighth among all superintendents while in 2006 it ranked fifth by African American superintendents. Districts try to find the right teachers to fit not only their perspective campuses, but their communities as well. This goes back to being the right fit for the campuses. Districts try to match campuses with the right person not only looking at teachers credentials, but personality as well. One African American superintendent stated:
Race is a variable because of expectations of a predominately
African American community and its students especially when
it comes to expectations of the children in the classroom like
it or not, the overwhelming majority of the teachers are white
females coming from middle class backgrounds and it is a
little difficult for them to adjust as much as they would like to
and a lot of them are very honorable and respectful and are in
it for the right reasons. But it’s just because of their upbringing
that too often they settle for a little less and have difficultly having
high expectations for all students of color. It happens with black
teachers too.
Research Question Three – Is there a statistically significant difference between the frequencies of the factors encountered en route to the superintendency by African American superintendents in early 1980’s and African American superintendents in 2006?
H02 There will be no statistically significant difference between the frequencies of the factors encountered en route to the superintendency by African American superintendents in the early 1980’s and African American superintendents in 2006.
The purpose of this question was to test, using a Chi Square, if there was a significant difference between the factors encountered
en route to the superintendency by African American superintendents in the early 1980’s and African American superintendents in 2006. Eight out of sixteen of the identified factors encountered enroute to the superintendency had a significance of p<.05, thus rejecting H02. In 13 out 16 cases, the percentages of the factors affecting them decreased. In 8 out of the 16 cases, the findings show that the feelings of the African American superintendents changed significantly. Table 5.2 indicates that there have been positive gains in attitudes of African American superintendents since Williams (1984) study completed.
Table 5.2 Factors Encountered That Affect Job Performance Greatly
Factors
1984 2006
Societal attitudes that Blacks lack competency in leadership positions** 42% 13%
Lack of role models**
25%
11%
Absence of “old boys” network, sponsorship, or other support systems**
46%
16%
Predominance of non-black employers**
36%
16%
Lack of acceptance by non-Black employers**
Lack of acceptance by Black administrators and teachers**
14%
13%
3%
5%
Exclusion from the informal system
23%
15%
Absence of systematic method, either formal or informal by school districts for identifying Blacks aspiring to administrative posts and/or superintendents**
37%
2%
Lack of awareness of the political maneuvers necessary within the administrative structures
25%
10%
Expectation of a greater time commitment
16%
15%
Fear of failing at the top
5%
8%
Lack of geographic mobility due to personal commitments
11%
11%
Discrimination**
38%
6%
Inexperienced, unqualified or ill prepared staff members
14%
10%
Self doubts as to personal/professional capabilities
0%
2%
Financing of education
11%
3%
** Significant difference at a 95% level of significance using a Chi Square
Research Question Four – What are the current problems identified by African American school superintendents in leading a district? Is race is a factor?
A sample population of African American public school superintendents (n=28) were interviewed by the researcher to gain insight on the current problems that they experience. The African American superintendent’s responses reflected several emergent themes. Emergent themes regarding the challenges facing public school superintendents, particularly the ones of African American descent were funding, accountability, achievement gaps, low social economic status, low perception, and challenging district. Most of the African American public school superintendents agreed during the interviews on the subject of race and the role that it plays in their success as a superintendent. A majority of African American superintendents thought that race plays a role but it takes a backseat to the role of economic status of their students. One superintendent responded, “Rather than race the more dominant issue is the economic factor because you have more percentage wise minorities that are more economically disadvantage. Race may play a factor, but economics would be the dominant issue”. The problems of low performing and low socioeconomic are prevalent in most of the districts that African American public school superintendents now lead.
Research Question Five – What are the barriers to career advancement for African Americans in the superintendency?
Many of the barriers that once stopped superintendents, such as societal attitudes, are no longer considered by African American public school superintendents to be a major barrier. One major barrier to career advancement is considered to be the lack of upward mobility associations for superintendents in general but especially for African American public school superintendents. The African American superintendents’ responses reflected four major emergent themes concerning networking. Identified emergent themes regarding networking that occur in a state to assist superintendents in their accession to the superintendency were informal, state, “good ole boy”, and a need for upward mobility.
The main barrier for many African American public school superintendents concluded was the lack of available districts to which they felt were open for them to apply. The research suggests that being a superintendent of color does have its disadvantages. Many times it does not matter what credentials an individual may hold or possess, if an applicant is a superintendent of color and is applying in a suburban district, the board might as well say “You need not apply.” One superintendent responded, “The biggest challenge is district selection. Most superintendents are in rural or urban areas. You have very few that are in suburban areas.” Many times African American public school superintendents feel that they are welcomed only at districts that have overwhelming schools that are high minority, low socioeconomic, and low performing. One superintendent stated, “African American superintendents are typically appointed to ‘low performing’ or urban school districts. Thus, they are often required to respond to issues involving high rates of poverty.”
When asked if they would prefer to be employed with a district that was majority minority, most of the African American public school superintendents replied that they would rather work in such a district. Many believed that they could make more of a difference in a low socioeconomic high minority district. Even though many said that they would like the jobs in other districts open to them, they were not sure that they would take such a job.
Research Question Six – What qualities or characteristics are vital to the success of an African American superintendent?
The sample population of African American public school superintendents agreed overall on the attributes that are necessary to be a successful superintendent. The following profile is for African American individuals who are interested in becoming a superintendent. It is recommended that a prospective African American public school superintendent should cultivate and display the attributes given in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Attributes of a Successful African American Superintendent
Attributes
A strong communicator with staff, students, and all community members, listens and learns from others, respectful to staff, and open-minded to new ideas. Individuals must be competent in both written and oral communication.
Is a high-energy and inspirational leader, an individual that displays integrity, self-confidence, and encourages trust of others.
Has a clear vision based on research and proven practice and is able to communicate vision effectively to staff and community members to gain support and trust for the vision.
Is an experienced team builder who encourages collaborative problem solving at all levels.
Has a passion for student success and committed to student achievement at all grade and ability levels. Is knowledgeable at techniques in motivating all students, especially minority students, towards academic success.
Has a pleasant and engaging personality and has the ability to motivate others to be their best.
Recognizes potential and ability of others, hires people that are capable, professional, and strives toward high standards.
Is knowledgeable in all aspects of managing an educational organization, especially in the areas of curriculum and finance.
Is politically savvy, has the ability and experience to develop effective relationships with local, state, and federal agencies.
Is a creative problem solver.
Conclusions
To develop reasonable conclusions about the findings, converged data and ideas gathered from the review of the literature, the quantitative portion of the study and the qualitative portion of the study were analyzed. The limited amount of research completed on African American superintendents has caused a limited number of elements in the study to be supported by literature. Triangulation of the data from these three sources produced the following conclusions:
Conclusion 1: The primary purpose of this study was to find the factors that assist African Americans to become and retain the position of school superintendent. Reoccurring concepts appeared during the interviews of the twenty-eight African American superintendents. Credibility and competency are extremely important for ascension to the public school superintendency across the United States. The African American superintendents interviewed emphasized that aspiring superintendents must possess great communication skills both written and oral, high morals, the ability to influence individuals, and they must be well versed in all aspects of running a school district. These findings were consistent with the findings of Scott (1980) and R. Johnson (2005). These attributes are needed by all superintendents but African American superintendents believe they must be able to perform at a much higher level than non-minority superintendents. One of the superintendents interviewed stated that, “I think if you’re an African American superintendent you do have to bring a little something extra to the table because you are sometimes compared against counterparts that don’t always have to perform at the same levels”. Prior literature also collaborates this: Moody (1971), Scott (1980), Williams (1984), Glass et al. (2000), Jackson (2002), and Dawkins (2004).
Conclusion 2: An objective of this study was to answer the question if race was still a barrier to the superintendency in 2006. The answer to this question comes from both, the perceptions of current African American superintendents and the research of other researchers.
The study used a survey that contained a section which asked participating African American superintendents to rate sixteen factors that they encountered en route to the superintendency using levels of
1– 4 (1 being none while 4 being great). A great significance in change of perceptions of African American superintendents between 1984 and now was tested using a Chi Square. Superintendents currently feel that discrimination does not play a major role in the daily operations of leading a school district. In the 1984 study, 38% of African American superintendents stated that discrimination was a factor that greatly inhibited their job performance while only 6% of 2006 African American superintendents agreed.
During the interviews of African American superintendents, clarification of what role their race played as a barrier to the superintendency was defined. Superintendents stated during the interview portion of the study, that their race does not affect their ability to be successful in the role of superintendent. The major challenge that they faced was not their race, but that a majority of their districts contained a high percentage of low socioeconomic students. Many superintendents stated that race may play minor role because the schools that they are hired in contained a high-minority population and many times they are placed in such districts to “fix” all of the problems. These findings were consistent with the findings of Scott (1980), Williams (1984), Jackson (2002), Dawkins (2004), and Jackson (2006).
The perceptions among African American superintendents is that their race prevents them from being selected for a majority of available superintendent positions. The 2000 AASA study found that 46.9% of minorities think that there is a major problem with discriminatory hiring practices (Glass et al., 2000). Jerry Jackson (2006) also stated that:
There are African Americans in the pipeline. But my research
suggests that these candidates are not pursued, recruited, or
promoted as vigorously as white candidates. If anything there
is a logjam in the pipeline. While white candidates can take
positions in both white and minority districts, the reality is that
African American candidates are rarely considered for positions
in non-minority districts. (pg. 25)
This was collaborated many times in the researcher’s interviews with
African American superintendents. One superintendent stated:
In Arkansas, to help you move up, you need to associated
with someone that’s in the superintendentency already and
who has a good grasp with a network system of others,
strong enough to carry you into the role of superintendent.
Realizing that many times we put in applications and unless
we’re just outstanding and dynamic and your applying into a
population that is overwhelmingly the same race you may or
may not get the job, although you maybe the most qualified.
In conclusion, African American superintendents believe their race does not play a significant role in the day to day operations of running a school district. But African American superintendents do state that race does play a role in obtaining the position of the public school superintendent. The explanation for this dichotomy lies in the fact that African American superintendents seem to have accepted there is a select number of superintendencies for them to be considered seriously. It is a fact that discriminatory hiring practices and “type casting” currently exist in hiring for educational leaders. If the number of African American superintendencies is to increase, there needs to be a change in the perceptions of community and board members. An acceptance that men and women of color with the correct credentials are able to lead any district regardless of their demographics has to be gained by those in the position to hire educational leaders. African Americans in education need to continue to fight for all positions and not allow themselves to be “typed cast” because of their race.
Conclusion 3: The third issue that was addressed by this study was if the African American superintendents in 2006 had different perceptions than the superintendents surveyed in 2000 and African American superintendents surveyed in 1984. This study found that the top five challenges for superintendents in 2006 were accountability/credibility, compliance with state and federal mandates, assessing and testing for learning, financing schools, and teacher recruiting/selection. This study found there was a significant difference in how the superintendents ranked the challenges between all superintendents in 2000 and 2006 African American superintendents. The introduction of NCLB has changed the landscape of education and how school districts run their daily operations. This might explain why there is such a significant difference between the 2000 and 2006 superintendents. Insight from the interviews that were conducted with African American superintendents indicated that African American superintendents overall do not think that race plays a role in determining the major challenges for superintendents.
Concerning the perceptions of race and the superintendency, African American superintendents from 2006 have a significantly different view from African American superintendents in1984. A Chi Square was used to test for significance. The researcher did not find any research to collaborate these findings.
Recommendations
After reviewing the data from both surveys and interviews, the researcher suggests the following recommendations:
1. A formal organization be established in each state to assist African Americans specifically in the pursuit of the superintendency.
2. A formal organization be established nationally by district demographics for all superintendents to gain multiple perspectives on educational and social issues.
3. For African Americans in the pursuit of the superintendency, create relationships with other African American administrators and possibly find a mentor that is currently an African American superintendent.
4. For African Americans in the pursuit of the superintendency it is suggested that additional educational training should be pursued in the areas of public speaking, governance, and written communication.
Recommendations for Further Research
This study focused on the factors that contributed to assisting an African American in becoming a school superintendent and retaining the position. The following recommendations for further research are as follows:
1. A national study to compare African American superintendents with similar size districts to determine if the perceptions of challenges and barriers are similar.
2. A national study to compare African American superintendents by national geographic regions to determine if the perceptions of challenges and barriers are similar.
3. A national study of both African American superintendents and their school boards using surveys and interviews to determine the perceptions of the expectations of an African American superintendent.
4. A national longevity study over a period of five to ten years, tracking the number of African American superintendents and the mobility of African American superintendents to verify that the actual number of African American superintendent is growing or declining.
5. A national study of African American ex/retired superintendents to determine their reasons for vacating the superintendency.
ABSTRACT
An Analysis of the Rural
Public School Superintendency
(May 2007)
James D. Laub: B.A. - University of Texas – Permian Basin
M.Ed., University of Houston- Victoria
Dissertation Chair: Ben C. DeSpain, Ed.D.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor and Faculty Mentor
Studies completed by researchers such as Glass, Bjork and Brunner (2000) have produced a great deal of research literature on the superintendency. A vast majority of this research pertains primarily to urban and suburban school superintendents and may not be germane to rural school superintendents. A mixed-methods research design was utilized in the study, to analyze the leadership styles and governance challenges faced by superintendents in rural public school districts. Relations with school boards, state and federal mandates, teacher retention, facilities, funding, and transportation issues, along with other challenges were examined in this research.
The results of the study can help rural public school superintendents more accurately identify governance challenges, recognize appropriate leadership behaviors, reduce turnover in the superintendency, and stabilize the superintendent’s role as chief administrative officer of the school district. The population for the study were superintendents from rural public school districts in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Oklahoma, and Arkansas.
Quantitative data for the study were collected by using a mail survey that was composed of two sections. Section one listed the specific leadership behavior exhibited by superintendents as measured by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X). Section two collected specific demographic information. Qualitative data were collected through naturalistic inquiry. The researcher surveyed superintendents utilizing personal interview techniques. Quantitative and qualitative data for the study were collected by analyzing information obtained from state education agencies, professional educational administration associations, professional community associations, rural education associations, and individual rural public school districts.
James D. Laub, PhD
Dr. Ben C. DeSpain
Dissertation Chair
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Public education in America is a multi-billion dollar enterprise that is funded almost exclusively by tax dollars. Accountability issues have emerged as the guiding principle in public education. As the chief administrative officer of the public school districts, the responsibility for all issues of accountability falls directly upon the shoulders of the superintendent. Superintendents often relate that very few people in schools, or in the broader public, are aware of the nature of their position (Brunner, 2002). A superintendent is charged with the duty of providing the best possible learning environment for students, an environment conducive to student success and achievement. In many instances, governance challenges inhibit a superintendent from carrying out this function.
Public school superintendents are confronted with a variety of governance challenges, causing many of them to leave public education. Clearly, it is difficult to achieve effectiveness in schools when constant change in school leadership occurs (Chance & Capps, 1992). Rural public schools superintendents are not immune from governance challenges. A plethora of research-based literature discusses governance challenges faced by school superintendents. Very little of that research-based literature focuses on the governance challenges faced by rural public school superintendents (Garn, 2003). Inadequate attention to researching challenges in rural education is an issue of local, state, regional, and national interest (Harmon, 2001).
Rural education has been an integral part of the American cultural landscape for over 200 years. Rural public school districts have unique traits and characteristics that distinguish them from suburban and urban public school districts (Beeson & Strange, 2003). Correspondingly, superintendents in rural public schools must respond to unique governance challenges. The National Center for Educational Statistics (2004) reported that almost 6,700,000 students are enrolled in public school districts in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Arkansas and Oklahoma. Of those students, 1,028,143, or almost 16%, attend rural public schools in these states (Johnson & Strange, 2005). Numbers of this magnitude reflect the scope and impact of rural public education and the importance that rural public school districts play in educating these students.
Statement of the Problem
According to Howley and Pendarvis (2002) rural school districts are finding it difficult to retain qualified superintendents. As the complexity of the superintendency has increased, so have the fears of a dwindling pool of qualified superintendent candidates (Lashway, 2002). Predictions loom of an increasingly high annual turnover rate in the superintendency reaching perhaps as high as 40% to 50% in the upcoming years (Stricherz, 2001). To complicate matters, a decreasing number of applicants in the pool for superintendent vacancies create a challenge for school districts, particularly those that are rural and small (Cooper, Fusarelli & Carella 2000; Johnson & Howley, 2001).
Excessive turnover in the superintendency can detract from the espoused purpose of educating students (Chance & Capps, 1992). Educational governance challenges may be major contributing factors leading to turnover in the superintendency for rural public schools. Superintendent turnover may negatively influence student achievement and success. Conversely, the stability of the superintendency may have a positive impact on the school district and all stakeholders of the school district (Kowalski, 1999).
Research Questions
Maxwell (2005) delineated the functions of research questions. He emphasized utilizing research questions that attempt to focus the study and give guidance on how to conduct it. The following research questions guided the study:
Quantitative Questions
1. What are the differences in identified governance challenges (school board relations, federal/state mandates, teacher retention, finance, facilities, transportation, curriculum) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states?
2. What are the differences in leadership behaviors as identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states?
3. What are the differences in leadership behaviors as identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states when demographic characteristics (age, gender, educational level, years of experience) are considered?
Qualitative Questions
1. What are the characteristics of rural public school districts?
2. What are the governance challenges facing rural public school superintendents?
3. What are the factors that contribute to superintendent turnover in rural public school districts?
4. What leadership behaviors are practiced to address the current and future challenges facing rural public school superintendents?
5. What knowledge, skills, and strategies are utilized by rural public school superintendents to address governance challenges?
Research Hypotheses
Isaac and Michael (1997) provided an operational definition of a hypothesis as “a possible difference between two groups or among three or more groups on a given variable which represents an operational definition of a construct” (p. 3). Further, Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) stated “a hypothesis is, simply put, a prediction of some sort regarding the possible outcomes of a study” (p. 45). The following null hypotheses guided the quantitative portion of the study.
H01 – There are no statistically significant differences in identified governance challenges (school board relations, federal/state mandates, teacher retention, finance, facilities, transportation, curriculum) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states.
H02 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states.
H03 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to age.
H04 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to gender.
H05 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to educational level.
H06 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to experience level.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to analyze the characteristics of rural public school districts and rural public school superintendents. Even in the best of circumstances leadership is difficult (Sergiovanni, 2005). Leadership behaviors that are exhibited by superintendents in rural public school districts were identified and investigated in an attempt to appreciably determine best practices. Many of the constraints that have historically inhibited the performance of rural public school districts can be overcome provided the school leadership is stable and dedicated to excellence.
Another rationale for completing the study was to scrutinize governance challenges among rural public school district superintendents. Superintendents are the key element in providing stability in the school district. The longevity of superintendents is essential to sustained educational reform. Beeson and Strange (2003) reported that many believe superintendents in rural public school districts encounter unique challenges and situations. Challenges encountered by rural public school superintendents include: school board relations; federal/state mandates; teacher retention; funding; facilities; transportation; and curriculum.
Significance of the Study
The results of this study add to and enhance the body of literature currently available on governance challenges of rural school districts. Rural school superintendents can use this information to glean insights to define best practices for rural school districts and impact the educational program in a positive manner. Recommendations and experiences provided by rural superintendents during the data gathering portion of the study could impact training and curriculum for educational leadership and superintendency certification programs.
In short, being a rural public school superintendent is a difficult job that fewer and fewer people are willing to accept (Arnold, 2005). Job security and longevity may be most tenuous for superintendents in rural public school districts, than their counterparts in suburban and urban public school districts. Consideration must be given to the time and effort to prepare for a leadership role as a superintendent. What sort of events and reasoning contributed to the decision to abandon the role altogether? We must examine the effect that such rapid loss of training and experience may have for a district. Superintendent longevity is a concern to educational leadership programs and to school boards who must choose the “next” superintendent. This research could lead to less turnover and better retention rates of rural public school superintendents. This would reduce the number of costly executive employee searches for school districts.
Assumptions
Gall, Gall and Borg (2003) identified an assumption as any important ‘fact’ presumed to be true but not actually verified. Newman (2000) stated “assumptions are statements about the nature of things that are not observable or testable” (p. 44). For the purposes of the study, the following assumptions were made:
1. Quantitative and qualitative data gathered from information sources and extant databases were current and factual.
2. Superintendents involved in the study held the necessary licensing credentials to be certified in their respective states.
3. Superintendents who responded to the survey and personal interviews were forthcoming, objective, and truthful in their responses.
4. Governance challenges presented in the review of the literature were identifiable and measurable.
5. The survey used in the study accurately measured the perceptions of the respondents.
6. The survey was completed by the respondent to whom it was sent.
Limitations of the Study
Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) defined a limitation as “an aspect of the study that the researcher knows may influence the results or generalization of the results, but over which he or she has no control” (p. G-4). Gay and Airasian (2000) defined a limitation as “some aspect of the study that the researcher knows may negatively impact the study, but over which they have no control” (p. 108).
The limitations of the study included:
1. A potential for differences in the responses may have existed, given the type of survey instruments and methodology (mail-out survey and personal interview) utilized in data collection.
2. The study may have been restricted by the personal perceptions, beliefs, assumptions, feelings, and experiences of rural public school superintendents.
3. Respondents in the study may be unaware of the definitions of transformational and transactional leadership.
4. Economic, regional, and cultural biases may have existed in the data, given the scope of the study is geographically based in the southwestern part of the United States.
Delimitations of the Study
Isaac and Michael (2005) defined delimitation as “arbitrarily narrowing the scope of the study” and “focusing only on selected aspects of the problem, certain areas of interest, a limited range of subjects and level of sophistication involved” (p. 38).
Delimitations of the study included:
1. Data for the study were gathered during the 2005 – 2006 school year.
2. Rural public school superintendents surveyed in five southwestern states had varying degrees of knowledge and career experiences.
Definition of Terms
Academic Excellence Indicator System (AEIS) Texas Education Agency statistical database containing information on the performance of students in Texas schools and districts. This database also provides extensive information on staff, finances, programs, and demographics of Texas schools and districts (Texas Education Agency, 2005).
Accountability Data System (ADC) New Mexico Public Education Department statistical database containing information on the performance of students in New Mexico schools and districts. This database also provides extensive information on staff, finances, programs, and demographics of New Mexico schools and districts (New Mexico Public Education Department Education, 2005).
American Association of School Administrators (AASA) Professional education association comprised mostly of public school administrators that promotes and represents educational administration issues (American Association of School Administrators, 2005).
Department of Education State agency that has statutory responsibility to administer and monitor compliance with education programs required by federal or state law, including federal funding and state funding for those programs. Texas Education Agency (TEA), Oklahoma State Department of Education (OSDE), Arkansas Department of Education (ArkEd), New Mexico Public Education Department (NMPED) and Arizona Department of Education (ADE).
Challenges Test of one's abilities or resources in critical issues in a demanding but stimulating undertaking (Noonan & Perrault, 2002).
Culture A common set of beliefs, values and behaviors; a descriptive apparatus (Silverman, 2005).
Governance Provide oversight and public accountability for the education program, as well as for compliance with fiscal and legal responsibilities (Resnick, 1999).
Laissez-Faire Management style that advocates minimal supervisor involvement in the instructional process (Glickman, Gordon & Gordon, 1998).
Leadership A process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2004).
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Instrument used to measure leadership traits, most commonly associated with transformational leadership (Northouse, 2004).
National School Board Association (NSBA) Consortium of state school board associations who research and promote educational governance issues (National School Board Association, 2005).
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) An act passed by the United States Congress that mandates all school districts who receive federal funding comply with accountability measures on student performance as defined by federal and state standards (Petersen & Young, 2004).
Rural School District School or district that is located in a place outside of a metropolitan statistical area and has a population of fewer than 2,500 persons (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2005).
Statewide Information System Database (SISD) Arkansas Department of Education statistical database containing information on the performance of students in Arkansas schools and districts. This database also provides extensive information on staff, finances, programs, and demographics of Arkansas schools and districts (Arkansas Department of Education, 2005).
Student Accountability Information System (SAIS) Arizona Department of Education statistical database containing information on the performance of students in Arizona schools and districts. This database also provides extensive information on staff, finances, programs, and demographics of Arizona schools and districts (Arizona Department of Education, 2005).
Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (SEDL) Private, non-profit research, development and dissemination (rdd) corporation, endowed to promote student and teaching improvement and success
(Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 2005).
Superintendent Chief administrative officer for a school district, responsible for managing the business of the district and serving as the primary initiator of policy (Glass, Bjork & Brunner, 2000).
Transactional Leadership Moving followers to enact their roles as agreed upon with the leader in exchange for reward or the avoidance of punishment (Bass & Avolio, 1989).
Transformational Leadership Change in structure, purpose, goals and behaviors; passage from one state or stage to another (Goldring, Crowson, Laird & Berk, 2003).
Turnover Occurrence that transpires when a superintendent vacates the superintendency (Czaza & Harman, 1999).
Organization of the Study
The study is comprised of five chapters. Chapter I includes the introduction of the problem and an overview of the problem. A comprehensive review of the literature is presented and discussed in Chapter II. Chapter III consists of the data collection methods, procedures, protocols, instrumentation, and data analysis. An analysis of the results of the data collected during this study is presented in Chapter IV. Chapter V provides a summary, conclusions, and recommendations
James D. Laub, PhD
Dr. Ben C. DeSpain
Dissertation Chair
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Kannapel and DeYoung (1999) concluded the problems with rural schools today is that rural schools have endured 100 years of assault from outside reformers. Rural schools are also faced with trying to piece together and capitalize on the remnants of their remaining uniqueness. Pharis, Bass and Pate (2005) suggested that “in the United States before the 1960’s, community involvement in schools was synonymous with supporting schools, paying taxes, voting for board members, and working with traditional school/parent organizations” (p. 33). In more recent times, rural public school districts are increasingly invisible in a mass society that is fundamentally occupied with its urban identity, its urban problems, and its urban future (Johnson & Strange, 2005).
Effectiveness in rural public schools cannot be traced and attributed to any single dimension of organizational effectiveness. Owen and Ovando (2000) contended that the superintendency is a multi-dimensioned position, the superintendent serves in educational, political, and managerial dimensions. There is no doubt that leadership owns a significant share of responsibility for effectiveness in schools. The pace for change confronting organizations today has resulted in a call for more adaptive, flexible leadership (Bass, Avolio, Jung & Berson, 2003). Bennis (1997) emphasized that adaptive leaders work with their followers to generate creative solutions to complex problems, while also developing them to handle a broader range of leadership responsibilities. Rural public school superintendents are not immune from this challenge. Kowalski (2005) reported that most states have plenty of people that have the credentials to serve as superintendents, the problem is quality.
Rural Public School Districts
Characteristics
Rural areas account for the largest part of our landmass and are home to one-fifth of the students in the United States, yet rural constituencies receive very little attention from federal and state governments (Mathis, 2003). Beeson and Strange (2003) reported that nearly one-third of the students in the United States are educated in small towns and rural areas. For the purpose of this study, rural public school districts will be defined as a school or district that is located in a place outside of a metropolitan statistical area and has a population of fewer than 2,500 persons (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2005).
Harmon (2001) wrote that the term rural connotes a positive, intrinsic value expressed by descriptions such as pastoral, bucolic, and untamed. According to McLaughlin, Hernandez and Caron (2005) rural schools have unique characteristics that should be valued. The strong attachment to place and family are defining characteristics of rural society (Mathis, 2003). A strong sense of kinship normally permeates throughout the rural community, relationships and connections to other people are highly valued (Howley & Howley, 2006; Kannapel & DeYoung, 1999). These connotations spill over and define rural public schools. Many see the role of rural schools as serving the local community, as the school should both reflect and shape the community (Woodrum, 2004).
Rural communities and public schools are not immune from problems. Characteristics and problems unique to rural areas include: geographic isolation; small populations; and declining enrollments (Reeves, 2003). Hardy (2005) believed that throughout America, rural communities and rural schools are hurting. Across rural communities, it often seems that fences circumscribe political boundaries, blocking economic growth and hindering collaboration with the larger society, ultimately affecting rural schools (Stark, 2005). Rural communities that are not in relatively close proximity to larger communities tend to have higher poverty rates and provide fewer occupational, social, and educational opportunities for their students (Kannapel & Young, 1999). In contrast, Van Alfen (1992) asserted that because rural school districts are close to their constituencies both in physical proximity and in value consensus; they have the ideal setting to practice empowerment.
Rural public school districts are largely being ignored when it comes to setting the educational goals to meet the needs of their students (Hardy, 2005; Howley & Howley, 2006; Woodrum, 2004). Rural public school districts reflect the economic and social stratification of their communities, and are influenced more strongly by the cultural and economic outlook of the community (Harmon, 2001). Rural public school districts are normally comprised of a homogenous student population and are typically static in nature. They are often geographically isolated, have a limited tax base due to low property wealth, and have a loosely coupled infrastructure. Not only are rural public schools faced with trying to piece together and capitalize on the remnants of their remaining uniqueness, but they must do so under a barrage of ongoing reforms seeking to integrate rural public schools into the national system (Howley, 2004; Woodrum, 2004). Conversely, Kannapel and DeYoung (1999) reported that the aesthetic values and quality of life afforded by rural communities can outweigh any negative connotations.
Research
While a plethora of research based literature discusses challenges faced by superintendents, very little of that research based literature focuses on challenges faced by superintendents in rural public school districts. Howley (2004) commented that most educational researchers tolerate the view that the rural “setting” need not be taken too seriously, at least not by the education profession. Several scholars have suggested that rural school research and improvement efforts should capitalize on the major strength of rural public schools, the strong links among school, community, and place (Howley & Howley, 2001). Research driven decision making is rapidly becoming the standard procedure and accepted practice for all public schools districts. The apparent lack of high-quality rural research, limited funding for rural education research, and inconsistent definitions of “rural” have led many to conclude that the research in rural education is limited and of poor quality (Arnold, Newman, Gaddy & Dean, 2005).
Redfield, Morris and Hammer (2003) maintained that rural public schools in America face an array of problems every bit as daunting and intractable as those confronting suburban and urban public schools. Conversely, reform efforts undertaken in suburban and urban public schools may not necessarily be germane to rural public school districts (Bauch, 2001). Unfortunately, much of the rural research literature today appears to surface as a nostalgic tribute to days gone by, reflecting an attitude that the rural way of life represents ignorance and provincialism (Kannapel & DeYoung, 1999). Relatively few scholars are studying rural education issues, and almost no funding is available to conduct research in specifically rural contexts. Many of the research studies and reform measures enacted in suburban school districts are not enacted in rural school districts. Kannapel and DeYoung further alleged that when generic research studies and reform measures are imposed on rural schools, the reforms are often short-lived, as they are not germane and meaningless to the rural context.
Funding sources and academic reward structures do not put much value on rural education research; it is not considered a prestigious research endeavor (Kannapel & DeYoung, 1999). Howley (2004) reported that “the study of schooling in rural places confronts most educational researchers, strangely including many of those working with rural schools, as a practical and conceptual problem that few scholars seriously engage” (p. 257). Howley further alleged that cultural, economic, and political power are the driving forces behind educational research. Rural public school districts, unfortunately, do not have the luxury of being represented by these power bases. Rural public school districts typically have sparse access to rigorous, unbiased and affordable research (Stark, 2005).
Governance in Rural Education
Rural Public School Boards
Effective governance incorporates processes that promote community building, develop effective leadership, enhance personal and social capital, and strengthen a school district’s capacity for accountability and improvement (Stark, 2005). School boards, as democratic institutions, ideally represent and are responsive to the public through their membership and governance (Land, 2002). Hess (2002) argued that the greatest challenge confronting school boards is to ensure that every child has the opportunity to learn. Pharis, Bass and Pate (2005) said that school boards that employ shared decision-making and focus on a developed action plan tend to be more effective than school boards that do not employ these measures.
Although school boards may be judged effective by measures other than academic achievement, such as their ability to balance budgets, comply with legislation, and to respond to local concerns, student achievement is the predominant measure of interest (Land, 2002). This challenge applies equally to rural, suburban, and urban public school districts. School boards are charged with fiduciary responsibilities, such as setting the local tax rate, approving budgets and large purchases, and calling bond elections. Additionally, these school boards are charged with paying close attention to strategic and operational planning decisions in academics, administration, and finances, from values and vision updates at the most strategic to adoption of the budget at the most operational (Eadie, 2005). Many propose that the most important function of the rural school board is the selection of the superintendent (Czubaj, 2002; Johnson & Howley, 2001). The power to hire and fire the rural public school superintendent gives the rural school board indirect control as to what transpires in the district (Land, 2002).
Van Alfen (1992) reported that the National Association of School Boards has identified the local school board as the leader of education in the rural community. Rural school boards fulfill this leadership role by acting as the governing bodies for rural public school districts by approving and setting policies and procedures. A policy is a clear statement by the board requiring action, used to provide guidance and direction to administration, faculty and staff, parents, and students (Texas Association of School Boards, 2005). These policies and procedures reflect that the district is fair, reasonable, even handed, and not arbitrarily or capriciously enforced. As a rural public school board begins to understand its leadership role in this context, policy development procedures and the policy handbook become the instruments of empowering school leadership (Van Alfen). It is the responsibility of the superintendent, not the school board, to implement policy.
Keedy and Bjork (2001) contend that school boards are pivotal actors in reforming public school districts. The interplay between local boards and stakeholders can measurably affect the quality of instruction, efficiency of district operations and the capacity of staff to sustain reform initiatives. Likewise, poor communication and collaboration among school board members can lead to a high turnover rate of board members. Pharis, Bass and Pate (2005) noted that a high turnover rate of school board members created situations of fragmented, inexperienced school boards. Conversely, research shows that while people believe in the potential of the local school board, they do not believe the boards are presently serving with the strength expected of them (Van Alfen, 1992). Teamwork, collaboration, and cooperation are the key factors for school board effectiveness (Pharis, Bass & Pate, 2005). Mountford (2004) suggested that school board members may be motivated to join school boards because they perceive something amiss with the school district and believe that they can fix it. Self-enhancement, personal agendas, or protecting personal interests can motivate some people to join a school board. One obvious motive, or one asset acquired by becoming a school board member, is formal and positional power within the school district and the community (Mountford). In contrast, Land (2002) argued that while the institution of local school boards has generated much criticism, they still engender public support.
Rural Public School Superintendents
The role of a rural public school superintendent appears to be difficult for some, and the complexity of issues and the daily demands on education leaders may seem to be increasing (Czaza & Harman, 1999). Rural public school superintendents face a variety of challenges, shoulder enormous responsibilities, and wear many different hats, from instructional leader, resource manager, to politician and consensus builder. Rural public school superintendents must be capable and willing to address the educational needs of his/her school districts and any problems that may arise from these needs (Kowalski, 2005). Keedy and Bjork (2001) contended that the superintendency, now perhaps more than ever, is a political position where conflict has increased exponentially. As the chief administrative officer of a rural public school district, a rural public school superintendent is ultimately responsible and accountable to the students, parents, taxpayers, community, and all other stakeholders in that rural public school district (Goodman & Zimmerman, 2000).
The position of rural public school superintendent appears to be a daunting position, where the complexity of issues and the daily demands are increasing. As the instructional leader of the rural public school district, the rural public school superintendent must strive to remove all obstacles and disruptions that will interfere with the educational process. According to Israel and Kasper (2004) with practice, time, skill proficiency, and developing wisdom superintendents in any school setting can be instrumental change agents for the betterment of schools. First and foremost, student success and achievement should capture the rural school superintendent’s notice; they must be institutional visionaries (King, 2002; Owen & Ovando, 2000). Curriculum alignment, time on task, and the relationship between the classroom teacher and the students are factors in determining student success and achievement.
Top down communication and autocratic leadership are no longer accepted as a viable alternative in many rural school districts and rural communities (Owen & Ovando, 2000). As such, rural public school superintendents provide the conduit for the free flow of information exchanges between stakeholders in the school district. Johnson and Howley (2001) argued that to a place bound superintendent, the highest commitment was to the community. Small, particularly rural, school districts prefer superintendents who are place bound rather than career bound. The rural public school superintendent is the facilitator and mediator of dialogue, he or she must function as a change agent when necessary. As the chief administrative officer of a rural public school district, a rural public school superintendent is a major contributor and member in a rural community. Blanchard and Hersey (2001) posited that schools that are viewed as being successful have superintendents who can unite the school and the community with a common vision. Rural public school superintendents must face problems in a setting that is intensified due to smaller communities and schools, where all aspects of administration become magnified (Peca, 2003).
In today’s learning organization work roles are defined in terms of information gathering, problem solving, the production of creative ideas, and the ability to adjust flexibly when interacting with others (Sergiovanni, 2005). Rural public school superintendents must be instrumental change agents, promoting the improvement of schools. Superintendents face a dilemma when American cultural expectations create the need for educational leaders to be “in charge” of their districts while today’s political climate and reform innovations demand collaborative decision making (Brunner 1998). Research by Kowalski (2005) showed that most superintendents in small districts virtually have no support staff, especially in the areas of curriculum and instruction. Being a superintendent/principal is not unusual in a rural school district (Peca, 2003). Rural public school superintendents have to assume more responsibilities (e.g. instructional leader, athletic director, bus driver) because there are fewer administrators in the district (Arnold, 2004). Johnson and Howley (2001) contended rural public school superintendents may leverage this experience to obtain more prestigious positions in larger districts.
“Competent” administrators could be hired from outside the educational arena and appointed as superintendents. Theoretically, this may appear to be a viable alternative, as administration practices may be applied to various venues and arenas. In reality this is not feasible, given the unfunded mandates, instructional and curricular challenges, ancillary operations, and fiduciary responsibilities that a rural public school superintendent must face (Keedy & Bjork, 2001). Kowalski (2003) agreed “chartered by very different convictions, this alternative characterizes superintendents as true professionals who, first and foremost, are educational scholars” (p. 300).
Governance Challenges
School Board Relations
School boards must provide the opportunity for all students to be successful while meeting the needs of the communities that they serve. School boards must also take care not to micromanage or invade the realm of the superintendent (Hess, 2002). As a result, school board members and superintendents often find themselves engaged in power struggles (Mountford, 2004). Political factions among school board members often place a rural public school superintendent in a difficult position (Kowalski, 2005). This relationship of conflict and apprehension hinders a superintendent’s ability to effectively lead and implement policy. To counter this, rural public school superintendents should exhibit constructive, proactive communication skills to foster positive relationships with school board members (Kowalski, 2003).
Often times, an atmosphere of conflict and apprehension creates an environment that breeds micromanagement. This micromanagement phenomenon occurs all too frequently in rural public school districts. School boards have been faulted for micromanagement tendencies and their inability to collaborate with superintendents (Goodman & Zimmerman, 2000; Land, 2002). It is the responsibility of the entire rural school board to regulate themselves, to ensure that no rural board member tries to control the day-to-day operations of the rural public school district. Micromanagement may be attempted by either the entire rural school board, or individual rural school board members. Micromanagement interferes with the superintendent’s ability to operate the district and will, more than likely, shorten the superintendent’s tenure, if the superintendent does not act quickly (Caruso, 2005).
Land (2002) pointed out that the most essential characteristic of local school boards is a focus on policy-making and oversight without involvement in daily administration. In the governance role, rural school boards and the rural public school superintendent should work toward empowering stakeholders, clarifying a collective vision, and emphasizing renewal (Van Alfen, 1992). Regrettably, relationships between rural public school superintendents and their school boards often reflect an atmosphere of conflict and apprehension. Rural public school superintendents and his/her school boards have experienced stressed relationships due to the blurring of job responsibilities and boundaries (Wright, 2002). Chance and Capps (1992) reported that the most frequent reasons cited by school board members for micromanagement are: financial mismanagement; financial malfeasance; and substandard communication on the part of the superintendent.
Mountford (2004) espoused that school board members who practice in a dominating or oppressive manner can overtly disrupt an entire school district. This is due in some part to the fact that many rural school board members are unsure as to what may constitute appropriate behavior (Caruso, 2005). Further, a growing body of research exists that helps us to understand the relationship between school board members and superintendents, a relationship that is generally not characterized as a positive one. McCurdy (1992) suggested that research on current school board members show them to be more self-centered than their past peers, expect quick fixes to problems, and are extremely demanding of the superintendents’ time.
Conflicts between school boards and superintendents occur over values and interests, heightened levels of political activism, changing power structures, and challenges to traditional purposes and goals of public education (Keedy & Bjork, 2001). Opfer and Denmark (2001) felt actions from one or more board members operating from a personal or private agenda can substantially interrupt the smooth and effective operation of a school district. However, open communications, availability of information, cooperation, and teamwork are factors that can lead to successful, positive superintendent and school board relations (Houston, 2001; Pharis, Bass & Pate, 2005).
Federal/State Mandates
Almost everyone agrees that some “standard” of achievement must exist to measure student performance, but who sets that standard of achievement is a deeply divisive issue. To achieve equity in education, superintendents must assure that every student (general education, special education, bi-lingual) will be instructed in the same challenging content and held to the same high expectations (McLaughlin, Hernandez & Caron, 2005). Controversy has erupted as to whether federal, state or local authorities should bear the responsibility of setting that standard. That argument was settled in 2001, with the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) by the United States Congress. NCLB greatly expanded the federal role in education by continuing and building on the emphasis established by the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1994 (Reeves, 2003). The main component of NCLB, Adequately Yearly Progress (AYP), specifies that states must develop objectives for improved achievement for all students (Petersen & Young, 2004; Woodrum, 2004). Mathis (2003) challenged that the No Child Left Behind Act is particularly troublesome for rural and small schools.
Harmon (2002) reported that rural public school districts and their advocates believe that standards should originate in the community in which the students live, rather than on national or regional levels. Cohn (2005) avowed that any serious debate or discussion concerning the prospect of student success and achievement must include the voices of local school superintendents. Cohn further commented “out of frustration, superintendents sometimes argue that they could do a much better job of rescuing kids if they were left to their own devices, rather than the tender mercies of federal and state initiatives” (p. 156). Conversely, others argue that it is the state that should set standards because local schools in some rural communities traditionally have low expectations for students (Gallagher, 2004).
For decades superintendents were considered to be managers more so than leaders, the current climate and emphasis on accountability, and in particular NCLB has placed an enormous amount of political pressure on schools to demonstrate effective leadership (Petersen & Young, 2004). Continued pressure from the federal and state governments for high academic standards and achievement show no sign of abating (Land, 2002). Reeves (2003) reported that while rural public school districts are facing many of the same issues confronting suburban and urban public school districts, the new requirements of NCLB create challenges unique to rural public schools. Small, rural schools are in greater danger of being mislabeled as “in need of improvement” than larger schools due to the volatile nature of school-level reporting from year to year (Mathis, 2003). Because of this, all stakeholders in a rural public school district have begun to feel the pressure and stress that NCLB and high stakes testing brings (Woodrum, 2004).
NCLB’s use of annual yearly progress data (from measures of student achievement) to make decisions about schools, students, and school personnel brings complications and challenges to school superintendents (Petersen and Young, 2004) . Reeves (2003) quipped that the goals of NCLB will challenge rural public schools in ways that will require them to rethink the structure, organization, and delivery of education to students. The superintendent is ultimately responsible—or, as former President Harry Truman quipped “the buck stops here.” Cohn (2005) reported that in general, superintendents appear to be supportive of NCLB’s goals and are finding ways to meet its mandates and initiatives.
Teacher Retention
Attracting high quality teachers is a major concern for the majority of rural public school districts. Raising teacher quality as a means of improving student learning and school accountability requires an adequate supply of high quality teachers (Holloway, 2002; McLaughlin, Hernandez & Caron, 2005). According to Redfield, Morris and Hammer (2003) the greatest obstacles for rural public school districts in retaining highly qualified teachers are: low salaries; multiple-subject assignments; housing shortages; and geographic isolation. Amenities, cultural activities, and opportunities that are available in suburban and urban areas are not available in many rural communities (Harmon, 2001; Loveland, 2002).
Teachers, especially those with less than 5 years teaching experience, must have continuing education and support. Universities, colleges, and other professional development avenues are not readily accessible to teachers in rural public school districts (Houston, 2001; Redfield, Morris & Hammer, 2003). Further, a myriad of related issues make it difficult for rural public school districts to attract and retain qualified school teachers. Compared to either suburban or urban public school districts nationwide, rural public school districts tend to have a higher teacher turnover rate, a higher percentage of new teachers hired at the last minute, and a higher incidence of out-of-field teaching assignments, (Jimerson, 2004; Mathis, 2003).
Rural areas are usually viewed as being idyllic and having a low cost of living. Because of this, teachers’ pay scales in rural school districts are normally well below teacher pay scales in larger, suburban and urban school districts. Typically, each state legislature sets a minimum base rate for public school teachers. Rural public school districts tend to gravitate to this minimum base rate; whereas suburban and urban public school districts tend to pay considerably more than the minimum base rate. Major problems confronting rural public schools are
the inability to pay appropriate teacher salaries, limited access to social activities, and lack of personal privacy (Harmon, 2001; Reeves, 2003).
A shortage of specialty subject teachers is a nationwide problem, especially in rural public school districts. Teacher shortages in rural public school districts affect many subjects and specialty areas including mathematics, science, special education, and foreign languages (Beeson & Strange, 2003; Redfield, Morris & Hammer, 2003). Reeves (2003) concurred, writing that “many rural schools already have difficulty recruiting and retaining teachers, particularly teachers who have
credentials in several subject areas, special education teachers, foreign language teachers, and teachers for LEP and bilingual programs” (p. 8).
Funding
Budgetary constraints and financial exigencies may be the biggest problems rural public school superintendents face (Glass, Bjork & Brunner, 2000; Mathis, 2003). Challenges plaguing many rural districts include small size, high levels of per-pupil spending, and high concentrations of students from poor families (Imazeki & Reschovsky, 2003). Local property taxes are the primary financing mechanisms for rural public school districts. Alspaugh (1999) reported that since most taxable property in rural areas consists mainly of farmland and agricultural real estate, assessment rates are not as high and normally fall below the average state rate. Unfortunately, rural public school districts, with their modest fiscal bases, usually cannot generate sufficient local resources to supplement adequately the state school finance programs the way that more affluent localities can (Harmon, 2001; Lawrence, 2002).
There are significantly fewer outside sources of funding in rural public schools in all categories, such as funding with private grants, Title I monies, and school improvement funds (Jimerson, 2004). Dewees and Earthman (2000) concluded that rural areas often have less political power than suburban and urban areas. This may lead to fewer resources and opportunities for financial assistance from outside agencies. However, hope is on the horizon, as Reeves (2003) reported “the Rural Education Achievement Program (REAP), Title VI, Part B of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, was designed to provide financial resources and flexibility to rural districts” (p. 4)
McColl and Malhoit (2004) postulated that equity requires that states “level the playing field” for low wealth public school districts, so that they can experience the same advantages as more affluent public school districts. Rural public school districts are suffering from declining enrollments. Declining enrollments mean declining budgets, as most school funding formulas are based on average daily attendance (Reeves, 2003). To combat these funding challenges, many rural public school districts have turned to the judicial system. According to Grider and Verstegen (2000) rural/small school districts have become prominent among plaintiffs challenging the constitutionality of school finance systems in several states including: Virginia; Texas; Kentucky; Wyoming; Tennessee; and Vermont. As a result of these lawsuits, several states have altered and adopted funding formulas that better accommodate rural public school districts.
Unfortunately, even with affirmation from the judicial system, rural public school districts are still plagued with funding challenges. For many rural public school districts, a central issue is that they will have to spend substantial amounts of money per student in order to meet state and federal student performance standards (Imazeki & Reschovsky, 2001). Rural public school districts require more than base level support to compensate for economies of scale and to achieve parity with suburban and urban public school districts. Dewees and Earthman (2000) emphasized that many rural public school districts remain under funded, as providing educational services is often more expensive and rural areas have less political clout. Grider and Verstegen (2000) agreed, concluding that this is due, in part, to legislative inaction addressing the concerns of rural public school districts in the aftermath of litigation, due to the limited representation of rural public school districts in legislative bodies.
Facilities
Student learning is difficult if the school facility is substandard or suffers from old age and neglect, because students learn best in facilities that are esthetically well maintained (McColl & Malhoit, 2004). Dewees (1999) described the average public school building in the United States as 42 years old; many are in disrepair due to the lack of maintenance and deterioration. Further, facility problems associated with inadequate buildings, environmental concerns and limited access to new technologies (fiber optics, t-lines) continue to plague rural public school districts.
Regrettably, far too many rural public schoolchildren attend school in inadequate facilities. Mathis (2003) reported that there is general agreement that adequate facilities are a huge concern in rural public school districts, many buildings are old and dilapidated. While states spend over 29 billion dollars annually on school facilities, over 50 percent of rural public school districts have at least one major building feature in need of replacement or extensive repair because their school facilities are frequently ignored, neglected, or under-funded. (McColl & Malhoit; Dewees & Earthman, 2000). School facilities in rural, suburban, and urban public school districts share similar characteristics and challenges. As fluctuations in the number of students, their location, and their socio-economic status impact facility demands on public schools districts, one must pay close attention to demographic forecasts and trends (DeArmond, Taggart & Hill, 2002).
Longstanding underinvestment in school facilities has left a legacy of inadequate school buildings in many rural public school districts (Dewees & Earthman, 2000). However, state school facility policies frequently focus on the needs of high growth suburban areas, and consequently the concerns of rural communities are not often heard at the state level. Hughes (1998) argued that one way to reduce the inequity in school facility funding is for the state to recognize local wealth and local ability to pay and to equalize funds accordingly. Rural public schools may need to renovate or repair existing buildings while suburban and urban public schools experiencing rapid growth may need to build new facilities (McColl & Malhoit, 2004).
Facilities in rural public school districts have several distinctive characteristics and challenges that set them apart from suburban and urban rural school districts. School facilities in rural public school districts serve a multitude of functions. Community and public service groups and organizations frequently utilize school facilities. An entire school district, K – 12, may exist in the same building. In rural communities, school facilities often function as the lifeblood and locus of control for all social activities in the community (Morris & Potter, 1999; Woodrum, 2004). Historical significance and community pride frequently make it difficult to alter or remodel existing school facilities, even though those needs exist.
Transportation
According to the National Highway Transportation Safety Administration (2005) 23.5 million children travel approximately 4.3 billion miles on 440,000 school buses each year. School busing has come to be viewed as a necessary component for rural public school districts. Throughout the rural parts of the United States, millions of young Americans are transported to schools, often over treacherous roads in difficult terrain, through challenging weather over long distances (Howley & Smith, 2000). Sovereign immunity protects rural public school districts from most tortuous lawsuits with one notable exception, transportation related lawsuits.
Transportation costs account for a significant portion of rural public school budgets. Rural school districts face higher transportation costs that may force them to choose whether to run buses or expand curriculum (Spence, 2000). Transporting students in rural public school districts may be twice as expensive as transporting students in suburban and urban public school districts (Killeen and Sipple, 2000; Lawrence, 2002; Reeves, 2003). Fuel prices, personnel costs (directors of transportation, mechanics and drivers) and preventative and general maintenance costs continue to rise, compounding the problem.
Rural school students are spending more time riding school buses longer distances than ever before. Personal costs to these students and their families are incalculable. According to Killeen and Sipple (2000) rural school children and rural public school districts are harmed the most from increased bus time. Due to the geographic location of many rural public school students to their schools, one-way bus rides of up to one hour or longer are commonplace (Howley & Howley, 2001). Many rural public school students are not engaging in extracurricular programs as they do not have transportation to the practices or activities required for participation in these programs (Lawrence, 2002: Spence, 2000). Participation in school activities and developing relationships with school personnel are often difficult for parents and stakeholders, given the distance they often have to travel to the school facilities (Lawrence, 2002; Mathis, 2003).
Leadership Theory
Historically, leadership has been equated with exercising power and control over all subordinates and stakeholders within an organization. Northouse (2004) stated “leadership has been defined in terms of the power relationship that exists between leaders and followers” (p. 2). Bennis and Nanus (1985) postulated that throughout the years, our view of what leadership is and who can exercise it has changed considerably. Leadership competencies have remained constant, but our understanding of what it is, how it works, and the ways in which people learn to apply it has shifted. Leadership practice takes form in the interaction between leaders and followers; leaders act in situations that are defined by subordinates’ actions (Spillane, 2005).
Over the past decade, well over 60 various classification systems have been developed to define ‘leadership” (Northouse, 2004). The scientific management movement in the early 20th century was heralded as the panacea for organizational effectiveness. At that time, leadership theorists and practitioners were firmly entrenched in the doctrine of efficiency. Yukl (1999) reported that leadership theory at this time emphasized rational processes. Shortly thereafter, the administrative and behavioral management movements emerged. The marriage of these three movements laid the foundation for formulating current educational administration theories. These theories include: trait theories; behavioral theories; and contingency theories. Similarly, educational administration practices were spawned from this marriage between scientific, administrative, and behavioral management.
The essence of educational leadership has been the ability to first understand the theories and concepts and then apply them in real life scenarios (Morrison, Rha, & Hellman, 2003). Siegrist (1999) hypothesized that people’s understanding of leadership has changed rather dramatically as individuals recognize that what leaders do is determined, in large part, by the nature of those being led and the culture of the organization in which they work. Several theories of educational leadership have emerged, with each theory producing volumes of literature and legions of both proponents and opponents. Since that time, a large portion of contemporary leadership has focused on the effects of transformational and transactional leadership (Antonakis, Avolio & Sivasubramaniam, 2003).
The status quo of educational administration must be challenged by always allowing for options, possibilities and probabilities when addressing systemic improvement (English, 2003). Organizations are flatter, less hierarchical and more intricately networked than ever before (Bennis & Nanus, 1985). Educational theorists espouse numerous examples of what constitutes effective school district attributes. These attributes include: focus on achievement; shared vision and goals; high expectations; stakeholder involvement; and proactive learning environments (Gray, 1990). In a perfect world, every school district would be effective and every student in that school district would be successful. Regrettably, school districts do not dwell in a perfect world, but rather in a world of outdated educational administration theories.
Trait Theory
In the early 20th century, leadership theorists believed that great leaders displayed a universal “list” of certain traits, identifying these traits as physical characteristics, mental capacity, personal achievement, and a need for power and status (House & Aditya, 1997). According to Northouse (2004) trait theories were also called “great man” theories, as the innate qualities, traits and characteristics of great social, political, and military leaders in history were the benchmarks that formed the standard list of traits. In theory, specific traits differentiated leaders from “non-leaders”. In other words, it is the leader and his/her personality that is central to the leadership process. In reality, however, this was not the case (Bennis & Nanus, 1997). Continual research has led to further development in trait theories, subscribing to the notion that situation specific behaviors define effective leadership, rather than specific traits (Yukl, 1998).
In the 1940’s, leadership theorists began to question and challenge the universality of leadership traits (Northouse, 2004). One of the most widely recognized trait theorists to do this was Stogdill. In his early studies, Stogdill (1948) suggested that no consistent set of traits differentiated leaders from non-leaders across a variety of situations. Further research led Stogdill (1970) to assert that successful leaders will display strong leadership traits and characteristics in a variety of environments, that is, an effective leader will emerge and perform time and time again. Further, the study of traits should not be limited to a universal list of leadership traits, but rather an interactional approach should be undertaken and leadership traits should be measured in relation to the situation.
Behavioral Theory
During the late 1940’s and early 1950’s, as trait theories were reaching their crescendo, behavioral theory emerged at the forefront of leadership research and theory. Researchers studying the behavior approach determined that leadership is composed of essentially two general behaviors: task behaviors and relationship behaviors (Northouse, 2004). From this time, throughout the 1970’s, behavioral theories were
the dominant theories in measuring leadership effectiveness (Yukl, 1998). Behavioral theory espoused that leaders can be developed and specific leadership characteristics can be taught.
Blake and Mouton (1964) helped form the foundation for behavioral theory with development of their managerial grid. This management grid, or as it is sometimes referred to “leadership grid”, was developed to help leaders reach organizational goals and objectives (Northouse, 2004). This managerial grid is comprised of two leadership orientation factors: concern for production and concern for people. Concern for production encompasses how a leader examines achieving organizational goals; whereas concern for people encompasses how a leader examines subordinates’ positions in relation to achieving organizational goals (Yukl, 1998). Based on this grid, leadership behaviors fall into one of the following categories:
Country club management—leaders express a low concern to accomplish goals, but express a high concern for relationships.
Impoverished management—leaders express a low concern for both accomplishing goals and satisfying relationships.
Middle-of-the road management—leaders emphasize concern to accomplish goals while at the same time maintaining stable relationships.
Team management—leaders place a strong emphasis on both accomplishing goals and satisfying relationships.
Authority-compliance management—leaders exert pressure on subordinates to accomplish goals by rewards and punishment.
Contingency Theory
Contingency theory, also referred to as situational theory, explores the relationship between the traits and characteristics of the leader in relation to the situation at hand. In other words, it is imperative that the leadership style be dictated by the situation (Howard, 2005). In contingency theory, there is no “panacea” or best way to lead, different situations require different leadership responses. According to Liethwood and Riehl (2003) leadership is work done to meet needs, it responds to exigencies to accomplish goals. It is important to note that contingency/situational theory stresses that leaders may not be effective in all situations – if a person’s style is a good match for the situation, it will work, otherwise there is little likelihood for success (Northouse, 2004).
One of the most widely recognized and prescribed contingency/ situational theory is Hersey and Blanchard’s situational theory (Yukl, 1998). Hersey and Blanchard (1977) identified four different leadership styles: directing (S1); coaching (S2); supporting (S3); and delegating (S4). The specific leadership style is determined by the amount of direction and the amount of support that a leader must exhibit in order for subordinates to complete a specific task or function (Northouse, 2004). These styles include:
(S1) High directive—low supportive—the leader focuses communication on goal achievement, carefully supervises subordinates, and makes most of the decisions.
(S2) High directive—high supportive—the leader focuses communication on goal achievement and subordinates needs, and makes the final decision.
(S3) High supportive—low directive—the leader does not specifically focus on goal achievement, he/she serves as a facilitator, develops subordinates skills, and solicits feedback, often turning over the day-to-day decision making to subordinates.
(S4) Low supportive—low directive—the leader lessens his/her involvement and cedes control to subordinates, by refraining from intervening unless absolutely necessary.
Transformational Leadership
James Burns (1978) is widely recognized as initially expressing the ideology of transformational leadership. Burns defined leadership as the “reciprocal process of mobilizing, by persons with certain motives and values, various economic, political and other resources, in a context of competition and conflict, in order to realize goals independently or mutually held by both leaders and followers” (p. 425). However, the version of transformational leadership theory that has generated the most research was formulated by Bass (1985) and his colleagues (Yukl, 1999). Burns alleged that transformational leadership was based upon mutually agreed upon goals and objectives of leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate subordinates to perform beyond desired expectations by inspiring, stimulating, and developing a higher collective purpose, mission, and vision (Bass, 1985). Conversely, Yukl argued “theories of transformational leadership provide important insights about the nature of effective leadership” (p. 285).
Northouse (2004) posited that “transformational leaders are recognized as change agents who are good role models, who can create and articulate a clear vision for an organization, who can empower followers to achieve at higher standards, who act in ways that make others want to trust them, and who give meaning to organizational life” (p.198). Further, transformational leaders embrace a vibrant, didactic learning environment, one that promotes personal responsibility, innovative thought processes and education practices that push the boundaries of existing theoretical fields. Avolio and Yammarino (2002) postulated that transformational leaders take the moral high road—they promote individual consideration, intellectual stimulation, personal motivation and inspiration, and high ethical standards. Transformational leaders emphasize emotions, values and endeavor to make events meaningful for subordinates (Yukl, 1999).
Superintendents who are transformational leaders in effective school districts do whatever is necessary to facilitate this process. Bass and Avolio (2004) defined transformational leaders as being characteristic and proactive—they change subordinates’ awareness of what is important, and move them to see themselves and the opportunities and challenges of their environment in a new way. Bass and Avolio delineated the following key aspects that comprise transformational leadership:
Idealized Influence (Attributed)—instilling pride in others for being associated with their leader; going beyond self-interest for the good of the group; acting in ways that build others respect and displaying a sense of power and confidence.
Idealized Influence (Behavior)—talking about important values and beliefs; specifying the importance of having a strong sense of purpose; considering the moral and ethical consequences of decisions and emphasizing the importance of having a collective sense of vision.
Inspirational Motivation—talking optimistically about the future; providing meaning and challenges and talking enthusiastically about what needs to be accomplished; articulating a compelling vision of the future and expressing confidence that goals can be achieved.
Intellectual Stimulation—stimulating subordinates to be innovative and creative by re-examining critical assumptions and seeking varied perspectives when solving problems.
Individualized Consideration—treating subordinates equally, but paying attention to individual differences, needs and abilities; serving as coaches and practicing two-way communication.
Collaboration produces a sense of community and a shared commitment which diminishes isolation and uncertainty about effectiveness. Bass and Avolio (1994) suggested that collaborative processes are likely to benefit organizational effectiveness if transformational leadership is involved in the process. Superintendents should endorse collective decision-making and responsibility; taking calculable risks should be promoted. Transformational leaders seek new ways of collaboration, seek opportunities in the face of risk, and prefer effective answers to efficient answers (Lowe & Galen-Kroeck, 1996). Working as a collaborative group, dealing with issues relating to the school district not only makes sense, it shifts decision-making and thought process paradigms. Collaboration facilitates learning environments that are conducive to student success and achievement.
By meeting subordinates expectations, a superintendent can then begin the process of moving subordinates into greater decision-making and creative thinking roles. Transformational leadership occurs when subordinates are moved to an increased awareness about what is intrinsically important and into a higher level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Bass & Avolio, 1989). This willingness to transcend from one’s basal self-interests, to promoting the interests of the organization, would act as a conduit for developing trust and confidence within the organization. Bass and Avolio (1994) alleged that developing trust by
empowering subordinates to demonstrate their abilities, will challenge subordinates to develop new abilities and seek unanticipated challenges. Creating a caring, self-enhancing learning environment should be a participative joint endeavor between superintendents, subordinates, and stakeholders. As public school districts move away from centralized decision-making, educational administrators must be competent to solicit input, analyze information, and build consensus among all stakeholders (Barnett, 2004). Bennis and Nanus (1985) articulated that leaders who manifest collaborative tendencies bring about a confidence on the part of subordinates, these leaders are challengers, not coddlers.
In order for any school district to thrive, stakeholders in that school district must be able to communicate with one another and must have congruent beliefs and purposes.
A overabundance of intoxicating visions and noble intentions exist, many leaders have rich and deeply textured agendas, but without communications neither will come to fruition (Bennis & Nanus, 1985). Communication is the key for establishing trust, interaction should occur between all stakeholders in a school district. The role of the transformational leader in the communication process is that of articulating a vision and inspiring others to believe in that vision (Bass & Avolio, 1994). An open door policy is mandatory for superintendents, especially for superintendents in rural public school districts.
An atmosphere of mutual trust and respect must exist among the superintendent and stakeholders, proactive interpersonal relationships is tantamount to building efficient communications. According to Bennis and Nanus (1985) “trust is the lubricant that makes it possible for organizations to work. An organization without trust is more than an anomaly, it’s a misnomer” (p.41). Communication can be vertical, horizontal, or lateral. Transformational leaders should employ all three modes of communication to ensure that individuals at all organizational levels understand their responsibilities and are aligned around a central purpose, mission, and vision (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Some of the best ideas come from subordinates and stakeholders and should be passed upward to the superintendent. Of course, some decisions have to be made at the top and then filtered down. After all, are superintendents not ultimately responsible for maintaining an effective school district?
Transactional Leadership
Transactional leaders focus on the interpersonal exchanges that occur between themselves and their subordinates. Burns (1978) defined transactional leadership as an exchange-based form of leadership in which “leaders approach followers with an eye to exchanging one thing for another” (p. 4). A “quid pro quo” correlation usually exists in this relationship. Bass (1998) argued that transactional leaders are motivated by what is easily identifiable and measurable. Issues, problems, and concerns that upset the “status quo” of the organization are reactionary factors for transactional leaders. These leaders are not receptive to change. According to Bass (1985) transactional leaders are more reactive than proactive; less creative, novel, and innovative; more reforming and conservative; and more inhibited in their search for solutions. Yukl (1999) postulated that transactional leadership includes a diverse collection of mostly ineffective leader behaviors that lack any clear common denominator.
Lowe and Galen-Kroeck (1996) reported that transactional leaders operate within an existing system, avoid risk, prefer effective answers and are less likely to support the status quo. According to Bass and Avolio (2004) transactional leaders define expectations and promote performance to achieve those expectations—they are associated with constructive and corrective transactions and act more as managers, rather than leaders. Bass and Avolio delineated the following key aspects that comprise transactional leadership:
Contingent Reward—providing others with assistance in exchange for their efforts; discussing in specific terms who is responsible for achieving performance targets; and making clear what subordinates can expect to receive for their efforts and expressing satisfaction when subordinates meet expectations.
Management-by-Exception (Active)—focusing attention on irregularities, mistakes, exceptions and deviations from standards; closely monitoring failures and punishing subordinates for their failures; and anticipating problems and making changes before those problems become too bothersome.
Management-by-Exception (Passive)—failing to intervene until problems become serious; avoiding specifying agreements, clarifying expectations and providing goals; and having a firm belief “if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.”
Laissez-Faire—showing a total absence of leadership; avoiding getting involved when important issues arise; being absent when needed; avoiding making decisions; and delaying response to urgent questions subordinates are given.
Burns (1978) espoused that transactional leaders motivate followers by appealing to their self-interests and needs. In order for this exchange to occur, goals and objectives, as well as contingency rewards and inducements, must be offered. The primary role of the transactional leader is to determine both the goals and objectives, and the rewards and inducements. Bass (1998) identified three levels of transactional leadership: contingency; management by exception; and laissez-faire. Bass further stated that management by exception and laissez-faire leadership are the least effective styles of management.
A contingency reward system is the method usually followed by transactional leaders. The use of positive reinforcement to encourage the creation of employee-employee and employee-employer relationships that are long lasting, satisfying, and mutually beneficial are benchmarks of contingency rewards (Bass & Avolio, 1994). These rewards can be intrinsic or extrinsic, immediate or delayed, and either wholly or partially meted out. According to Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson (2003) subordinates agreed with, accepted, or complied with the leader in exchange for praise, rewards and the avoidance of disciplinary action. In addition to contingent reward, transactional leaders employ two other methodologies when dealing with subordinates, Management-by-Exception (passive and active) and laissez-faire leadership. However, Yukl (1999) countered that transactional leadership practices are vague and have not been studied in a systematic manner.
Management-by-Exception occurs when the leader reacts only when problems arise, or standards are not met (Bass, 1998). Leaders who employ Management-by-Exception avoid giving directives when established policies and procedures are viable and working. Northouse (2004) wrote “management by exception refers to leadership that involves corrective criticism, negative feedback, and negative reinforcement” (p.179). These leaders allow subordinates to continue the status quo, and will only intervene when a crisis arises or when an objective has not been met. Management-by-Exception occurs either actively or passively.
Management-by-Exception (Active) is a continual process, whereby a leader anticipates problems and addresses the situation to meet these problems before they become unmanageable. It is similar to contingent reward in terms of focusing on outcomes; however, in this case, the leader actively watches for, and acts on, mistakes or errors (Avolio & Yammarino, 2002). These leaders watch subordinates and wait for them to make mistakes or to violate rules and then take corrective action (Northouse, 2004). Leaders who employ this management style specify the standards for compliance and what constitutes ineffective performance – they punish subordinates for being out of compliance with standards (Bass, Avolio, Jung & Berson, 2003). Because of this, Management-by-Exception (Active) is classified as a negative transaction.
Management-by-Exception (Passive) is a reactionary process, whereby a leader responds to problems after the situation arises (Northouse, 2004). Bennis and Nanus (1985) reported that reactive organizations wait for changes to occur and then respond after the fact.
A reactive mode is the least expensive, but often the most shortsighted leadership strategy. Avolio and Yammarino (2002) concurred, postulating that passive Management-by-Exception (Passive) is similar to Management-by-Exception (Active); however, passive leaders wait until deviations occur before intervening.
Avolio and Yammarino (2002) alleged that laissez-faire leaders consistently relinquish responsibility, decision-making and control to subordinates. This creates an identifiable, noticeable, avoidance and absence of leadership. Subordinates are delegated total control and responsibility within the organization. The laissez-faire leader employs diminished decision making skills and fails to adequately communicate with all subordinates and stakeholders. Laissez-faire leaders do relatively little or nothing at all, to affect followers or their behaviors and often there is literally no effective transformation or transaction (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Laissez-faire leadership is the most inactive form of leadership. Many laissez-faire leaders relinquish their decision making authority under the auspices of subordinate empowerment. In contrast, Northouse (2004) argued that in laissez-faire leadership no exchange exists between leaders and subordinates, and that leaders make no attempts to help subordinates grow. Bass (1997) advocated that this leadership style is a reflection of a leaders’ abandonment and abdication of responsibility.
Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to discuss and provide an analysis of the rural school district superintendency. Reeves (2003) contended that a growing body of research indicates that rural public schools provide enormous benefits to students, teachers, and the communities that they serve. A review of the literature presented a general overview of rural public school districts, effective leadership and leadership theories. More germane to the study, the review of the literature focused on specific governance challenges faced by rural school district superintendents. Further, the review of the literature focused on transformation and transactional leadership.
Rural public schools have their own unique, defining characteristics and governance challenges (Beeson & Strange, 2003). According to Johnson and Strange (2005) governance challenges include, but are not limited to: federal accountability standards and mandates; school board relations; recruiting and retaining quality teachers; school finance; inadequate school facilities; and transportation. While these governance challenges seem daunting to rural public school districts, they are not insuperable. To overcome these challenges, rural public school superintendents must utilize effective governance techniques and practices. Effective governance is an amalgamation of specific leadership practices that make the difference between stagnating and flourishing rural public schools (Stark, 2005).
Adaptive leaders work with their subordinates in order to create solutions to complex problems, broaden leadership capabilities, and provide a foundation for organizational effectiveness (Bennis, 1997). English (2003) contended that decisions should fit the context, educational administrators should not take a standard cookie cutter approach to decision-making. Transformational and transactional leadership are two prevailing theories that address these needs. Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson (2003) opined that for optimal effectiveness, leaders should be both transformational and transactional. Transformational leaders and transactional leaders share a common thread. Both types of leaders wish to maximize accomplishments and attain goals, but transactional leaders use structure to motivate subordinates with expectations of performance rewards and punishment (Bass, 1985). In rebuttal, Yukl (1999) pointed out that it is evident that transformational and transactional leadership theories provide important insights, but some serious conceptual weaknesses need to be corrected to make the theories more useful.
The purpose of this study was to analyze the characteristics of rural public school districts and rural public school superintendents. Particularly, leadership behaviors that are exhibited by superintendents in rural public school districts were identified and investigated, in an attempt to appreciably impact best practices. Superintendents are the key element in the stability equation, and the increased tenure of superintendents is essential to sustained educational reform. School districts with severe problems can be “turned around” by dedicated, stable leadership (Farkas, Johnson, Duffet & Foleno, 2001).
Sergiovanni (2005) wrote that conventional wisdom tells us that leadership is about finding solutions to problems, even in the best of circumstances, leadership is difficult. Educational administrators must be open and consider all claims and theories, they need not necessarily replace existing theories but challenge existing boundaries (English, 2003).
The National Center for Educational Statistics (2006) reported that almost 9,000,000 students are enrolled in rural public school districts in the United States. Numbers of this magnitude reflect the scope and impact of rural public education and the importance that rural public school districts play in educating these students. Beeson and Strange (2003) conducted a comprehensive, nationwide study on the impact of rural education and the challenges that rural public school districts encountered. Unfortunately, additional research on rural public schools is limited in both scope and quantity. Results of this study may add to and enhance the body of literature currently available on rural school districts and the rural school superintendency.
James D. Laub, PhD
Dr. Ben C. DeSpain
Dissertation Chair
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER III
METHOD OF PROCEDURE
Public education in America is a multi-billion dollar enterprise, funded almost exclusively by tax dollars. Taxpayers expect measurable, tangible results from public education. Some tangible results include: acceptable student achievement; secure school facilities; and fiscal accountability. The data collected and analyzed in this study may depict some tangible results. Public education institutions are, for the most part, individual entities governed by local boards of education. One of the major responsibilities for a local board of education is the selection of the superintendent. Superintendents serve as the chief administrative officer and are responsible for the daily operation of public school districts. Superintendents often relate that very few people in schools or in the broader public are aware of the nature of their position (Brunner, 2002).
The purpose of the study was to analyze the characteristics of rural public school districts and rural public school superintendents. Sergiovanni (2005) wrote that conventional wisdom tells us that leadership is about finding solutions to problems; even in the best of circumstances leadership is difficult. Educational governance challenges include: federal and state accountability standards and mandates; superintendent and school board relations; recruiting, developing, and retaining quality teachers; funding for maintaining, remodeling and constructing school facilities; and transportation. However, even school districts that experience numerous problems can be “turned around” by dedicated, stable leadership (Farkas, Johnson & Duffet, 2001).
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
Quantitative Questions
1. What are the differences in identified governance challenges (school board relations, federal/state mandates, teacher retention, finance, facilities, transportation, curriculum) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states?
2. What are the differences in leadership behaviors as identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states?
3. What are the differences in leadership behaviors as identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states when demographic characteristics (age, gender, educational level, years of experience) are considered?
Qualitative Questions
1. What are the characteristics of rural public school districts?
2. What are the governance challenges facing rural public school superintendents?
3. What are the factors that contribute to superintendent turnover in rural public school districts?
4. What leadership behaviors are practiced to address the current and future challenges facing rural public school superintendents?
4. What knowledge, skills, and strategies are utilized by rural public school superintendents to address governance challenges?
Null Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses guided the study:
H01 – There are no statistically significant differences in identified governance challenges (school board relations, federal/state mandates, teacher retention, finance, facilities, transportation, curriculum) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states.
H02 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states.
H03 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to age.
H04 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to gender.
H05 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to educational level.
H06 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to experience level.
Research Methods
A mixed-methods explanatory design was used in the study, with both a qualitative and quantitative component. Prior to beginning the research portion of the study, the Institutional Review Board at Prairie View A & M University approved the study (Appendix E). Fraenkel and Wallen (2004) described a mixed-methods study as one containing both a quantitative and a qualitative portion. According to Gall, Gall and Borg (2003) qualitative research is best used to discover themes and relationships at the case level, while quantitative research is best used to validate those themes and relationships in samples and populations. Qualitative research plays a discovery role, while quantitative research plays a confirmatory role.
Quantitative Data
Data for the quantitative portion of the study were gathered utilizing a cross-sectional survey. Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) defined a cross-sectional survey as “collecting information from a sample that has been drawn from a predetermined population. The time it takes to collect all of the data desired may take anywhere from a day to a few weeks or more” (p. 397). Descriptive quantitative data were gathered through a survey and by extracting pertinent data from extant databases.
Research Design
Explanatory and descriptive methodologies comprised the quantitative portion of the study. An explanatory design involves the researcher collecting and analyzing quantitative data, and then obtaining qualitative data to follow up and refine the quantitative finding (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). Descriptive research is a type of quantitative research that involves making careful descriptions of educational phenomena, concerned primarily with determining “what is” (Gall, Gall & Borg 2003). The independent variable for the study was rural public school superintendents from 5 states. One set of dependent variables for the study were the numeric scores representing leadership attributes derived from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X). The other set of dependent variables for the study were governance challenges identified by rural public school superintendents. Demographic indicators served as factors.
Population and Sample
Gall, Gall and Borg (2003) defined a target population as “all the members of a real or hypothetical set of people, events, or objects to which researchers wish to generalize the results of their research” (p.167). The target population for the quantitative portion of the study consisted of superintendents from rural public school districts in five southwestern states. Rural school districts were defined as being located in a place outside of a metropolitan statistical area that has a population of fewer than 2,500 persons (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2005). Southwestern states included in the study were: Texas; New Mexico; Arizona; Arkansas; and Oklahoma. Rural public school superintendents in these states were identified using information gathered through their respective state education agency databases.
Table 3.1 reflects the total number of the target population for rural public school superintendents and the state in which their districts are located (n=1,052). As shown in Table 3.1, of the target population of rural public school superintendents, 52.4% (n=551) were from Texas, 35.7% (n=376) were from Oklahoma, 5.5% (n=58) were from Arkansas, 4.7% (n=49) were from New Mexico and 1.7% (n=18) were from Arizona.
Table 3.1 Population of Rural Public School Superintendents
Frequency
Percent
Texas
551
52.4
Oklahoma 376 35.7
Arkansas
58
5.5
New Mexico
49
4.7
Arizona
18
1.7
Total
1,052
100.0
To identify respondents for the quantitative portion of the study a stratified random sample, based on gender, was selected and contacted. Each was invited to participate in the study. The stratified sample included 30%, or 280 of the male rural public school superintendents, and 100%, or 118 of the female rural public school superintendents.
Table 3.2 reflects the gender of the target population for rural public school superintendents (n=1,052). As reflected in Table 3.2, of the target population of rural public school superintendents, 88.8% (n=934) are male and 11.2% (n=118) are female.
Table 3.2 Gender of the Population of Rural Public School Superintendents
Frequency
Percent
Male
934
88.8
Female
118
11.2
Total
1,052
100.0
Instrumentation
A Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) survey instrument was used to gather quantitative data for the study (Appendix C). The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) is comprised of 36 items measuring nine subscales, using a 5-point Likert-type scale to measure the leadership behavior employed by rural public school superintendents. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) is a revised version of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. A current review of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire is pending for the Seventeenth Mental Measurement Yearbook. A review in the Fourteenth Mental Measurement Yearbook yielded evidence that the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire consistently measures the constructs of transformational and transactional leadership.
According to Antonakis, Avolio and Sivasubramaniam (2003), the current version of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) was developed based on the expert judgment of six leadership scholars who recommended additions or deletions of items, and confirmatory factor analyses. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire was developed by Bass (1985) based on his research on transformational and transactional research, to investigate the nature of the relationship between these leader styles and work unit effectiveness and satisfaction (Lowe & Galen-Kroeck, 1996). Bass is regarded as a leading authority and has been extremely influential in developing leadership models. A demographic sheet developed by the researcher was included and mailed with the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X).
Validity
Validity indicates the degree to which a test, measurement or instrument is capable of achieving certain aims. Validity is an integral, mandatory component for any type of measurement test or instrument. A plethora of research based literature exists, supporting the psychometric properties of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) instrument. Northouse (2004) indicated that the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire has gone through many revisions, and it continues to be refined to strengthen its validity.
Construct validity has been linked to the results of measurement and theoretical reasoning and evaluating the internal structure of an instrument. According to Isaac and Michael (1993) construct validity shows to what extent certain explanatory concepts or qualities account for performance on a test. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire demonstrates construct validity in the forms of high levels of correlation determined through initial and cross-validation examination (Bass & Avolio, 1995).
Reliability
Fraenken and Wallen (2003) reported that reliability refers to the consistency of the scores obtained—how consistent they are for each individual from one administration of an instrument to another and from one set of items to another. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) scale has, on average, exhibited high internal consistency. Similar reliability results confirming the stability of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) have been reported (Antonakis, Avolio & Sivasubramaniam, 2003).
Relative to statistics, the more reliable a test is, the more valid the data produced by that test will be. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) has been utilized extensively in both the public and private sectors to identify leadership traits. Bass and Avolio (2000) indicated that the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) has been used in nearly 200 research programs and doctoral dissertations around the globe in the last few years. In education, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) has been utilized to identify leadership traits among educational administrators, including public school superintendents. Tejeda, Scandura and Pillai (2001) reported that the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) is one of the most widely used instruments to measure leadership traits in the organizational sciences. The number of studies and different applications of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) is indicative of generally accepted standards of reliability
Research Procedures
In May 2006, permission from the publishers, Bass and Avolio, was obtained for utilizing the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) (Appendix B). Once this permission was obtained, participants for the study, rural public school superintendents from 5 selected states were identified through public information databases maintained by state education agencies. A list of 1,052 potential participants was extracted from these databases and entered into an Excel database. A table of random numbers was generated, and 398 rural public school superintendents from this Excel database were identified as respondents for the study.
A cover letter and consent information (Appendix A), demographic survey, Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) (Appendix C), and a stamped return envelope with the researchers home address were mailed to the respondents inviting them to participate in the study. Participation in the study was voluntary and no incentives, inducements or rewards were offered in exchange for participation. Rural public school superintendents were informed that the completion and remittance of the survey would serve as consent to participate in the quantitative portion of the study.
A time frame of twelve weeks was established for participants to answer the survey. Surveys returned in envelopes with postmarks bearing June 2006 through August 2006 were accepted and included in the study. Concurrently, additional quantitative data were collected from extant databases. At this point, the quantitative data collected were analyzed to test the null hypotheses.
Data Collection
To insure data integrity, the researcher was the only individual permitted to gather, read, classify and code data collected in the study. Each superintendent received an informed consent letter and random numbers were assigned to survey respondents to assure confidentiality.
Data were maintained, secured and accessed only by the researcher. Further, data will be stored in a locked file cabinet at the home of the researcher for a period of no less than seven years. Quantitative data for the study were collected by administering a survey to rural public school superintendents.
Additional quantitative data for the study were collected by analyzing information obtained from extant databases, state education agencies, professional educational administration associations, professional community associations, rural education associations, and the individual rural public school districts. Demographic and descriptive information along with survey responses were checked for accuracy and appropriately recorded.
Data Analysis
Data collected from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) were scored utilizing the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire scoring key provided by the publishers (Appendix C). Data collected from the demographic portion of the survey were scored and categorized. Once the quantitative data collection were completed and appropriately scored, the data were entered into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS Version 12.0) software for analysis. One-way and factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical procedures were performed on quantitative data gathered from the survey and the extant databases. According to Isaac and Michael (1997) analysis of variance is a strategy where two or more groups sampled from the same population are examined, with the focus on the interaction of the groups as well as the main effects.
For H01, an analysis of variance was utilized to analyze data. Rural public school superintendents from 5 states represented the independent variable, whereas identified governance challenges represented the dependent variables. In H02, an analysis of variance was utilized to analyze data. Rural public school superintendents from 5 states represented the independent variable, whereas scored leadership behaviors represented the dependent variable. In H03, H04, H05 and H06, a factorial analysis of variance was utilized to analyze data. Rural public school superintendents from 5 states represented the independent variable, whereas scored leadership behaviors represented the dependent variable. Additionally, in H03, H04, H05 and H06, demographic information were analyzed and represented factors. Age represented the factor for H03, gender represented the factor for H04, educational level represented the factor for H05, and years as a superintendent represented the factor for H06.
Qualitative Data
Naturalistic inquiry was the primary method utilized to gather qualitative data for the study. Naturalistic research is based on the philosophical viewpoint of phenomenology allowing multiple realities arising from natural differences in the development of human perception (Isaac & Michael, 1997). Rural public school superintendents were interviewed through semi-structured and unstructured interviews in order to establish credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability of the procedures and findings.
Research Design
According to Maxwell (2005) the qualitative researcher wants to ensure that a study is worth doing and justifiable. In other words, that something of worthwhile value will be produced by the study. Based on the review of the literature and the data identified in the quantitative portion of the study, the researcher obtained and developed open-ended interview questions. These questions provided the information needed to answer the qualitative research questions of the study.
Population and Sample
Qualitative information from sample respondents were gathered by personal interview. Respondents for the qualitative portion of the study were selected by convenience sampling from the target population identified in the quantitative component. Convenience sampling is the practice of selecting cases that are likely to be available for the study (Isaac & Michael, 1997). Thirty rural public school superintendents were selected and invited to participate in the study.
Research Procedures
After the quantitative data were collected and analyzed, a follow up qualitative interview was performed. Thirty (30) rural public school superintendents, selected by convenience sampling, were the participants for the qualitative portion of the study. In September 2006, the thirty selected rural public school superintendents were contacted by e-mail and asked to participate in the qualitative portion of the study. All interviews were conducted during September, October, and November 2006. The rural public school districts were located in either the central, northern, southern, or southeastern regions of Texas. Twenty-six of the interviews were conducted in person at the rural public school superintendents’ office. Four of the interviews were conducted via telephone conference.
The interviewees were allowed to preview the questions and consent information prior to the interviews (Appendix D). Handwritten field notes were taken as the information gathering technique utilized during the qualitative interview and were later transcribed by the researcher (Appendix E). A professional, yet relaxed atmosphere was maintained during the interviews. All of the interviewees were cordial, candid and very open with the researcher. The interview consisted of seven open-ended questions and respondents were asked to give personal responses to these open-ended questions. After the interview, the researcher drove around the community and surrounding area to observe and gather additional data.
Data Collection
To eliminate researcher bias, the qualitative interview was designed and comprised of open-ended questions that were self-reported by the respondents. During the qualitative interview, several respondents were emphatic concerning the sensitivity and confidentiality of his/her responses. The researcher reassured the interviewees that all identifying information would be kept confidential. Qualitative data for the study were collected through naturalistic inquiry utilizing personal interview techniques. Respondents were interviewed in his/her respective districts and asked to give personal responses to seven open-ended questions.
The responses were used to explain and enhance the quantitative portion of the research. Naturalistic studies are based on the philosophical viewpoint of phenomenology allowing multiple realities arising from natural differences in the development of human perception contribute greatly to the information and knowledge surrounding the events occurring in schools (Isaac & Michael, 1997). The naturalistic inquiry method enabled the researcher to obtain personal, first hand data and information from practicing rural public school superintendents.
Data Analysis
Qualitative data were analyzed for recurring themes and coded accordingly. Coding categories were constructed from the concepts and themes that emerged during the interview process and from the review of the literature. These data were used to explain and enhance the statistical data drawn from the quantitative portion of the study. To further insure the integrity and confirmatory purposes of the qualitative data, triangulation and member check techniques were utilized in analyzing the data. According to Gall, Gall and Borg (2003) triangulation is the process of using multiple data collection methods, data sources or theories to check study findings. The review of the literature, data gathered from the quantitative survey and data gathered from the qualitative interviews served as the foundation for triangulation. Member checks is systematically soliciting feedback about the data collected and the conclusions from the population one is studying (Maxwell, 2005). Rural public school superintendents who participated in the interview were periodically asked to review the data collected, once the interview was completed.
Summary
The purpose of the study was to analyze the characteristics of rural public school districts and rural school district superintendents. Quantitative data were analyzed through descriptive and statistical processes. Qualitative data were analyzed for recurring themes and coded accordingly. A thorough analysis of all research data collected is presented in Chapter IV. Chapter V presents data summary, conclusions, implications, and recommendations for future studies.
James D. Laub, PhD
Dr. Ben C. DeSpain
Dissertation Chair
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA
This chapter will present the findings of the study and include a description of the response rate and respondents, a re-statement of the research questions, an analysis and presentations of the findings, and a summary. Research questions and hypotheses were individually addressed with both descriptive statements and accompanying tables. The purpose of the study was to analyze the characteristics of rural public school districts and rural public school superintendents. Particularly, leadership behaviors that are exhibited by superintendents in rural public school districts were identified and investigated, in an attempt to appreciably impact best practices.
Response Rates
A total of 398 surveys were mailed to respondents, with 179 of these surveys being returned producing an overall 44% return rate. After data were screened, four surveys were eliminated due to incomplete or missing responses. Table 4.1 reflects the total number of responses from rural public school superintendents and the state in which their districts are located (n=175). The target population of rural public school superintendents, 60% (n=105) were from Texas, 26.3% (n=46) were from Oklahoma, 5.7% (n=10) were from New Mexico, 5.7% (n=10) were from Arkansas and 2.3% (n=4) were from Arizona.
Table 4.1 Returned Responses per State Frequency Table
Frequency
Percent
Texas 105 60.0
Oklahoma 46 26.3
New Mexico 10 5.7
Arkansas 10 5.7
Arizona 4 2.3
Quantitative Research Questions
1. What are the differences in identified governance challenges (school board relations, federal/state mandates, teacher retention, finance, facilities, transportation, curriculum) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states?
2. What are the differences in leadership behaviors as identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states?
3. What are the differences in leadership behaviors as identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states when demographic characteristics (age, gender, educational level, years of experience) are considered?
Quantitative Data
Quantitative Research Question One—What are the differences in identified governance challenges (school board relations, federal/state mandates, teacher retention, finance, facilities, transportation, curriculum) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states?
H01—There are no statistically significant differences in identified governance challenges (school board relations, federal/state mandates, teacher retention, finance, facilities, transportation, curriculum) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states.
Analyses of variances (ANOVA) were performed on the data to produce results for H01. Rural public school superintendents served as the independent variable, while identified governance challenges served as the dependent variable. Data were measured at a 95% level of significance. Based on the following alphas: school board relations (p=.65); federal/state mandates (p=.11); teacher retention (p=.06); funding (p=.08); facilities (p=.05); transportation (p=.20); and curriculum (p=.57), H01 is not rejected.
Table 4.2 reflects the means of identified governance challenges as reported by rural public school superintendents (n=175): School Board relations (M=2.37, SD=1.14), State/Federal mandates (M=3.54, SD=1.19), Teacher Retention (M=3.17, SD=1.19), Funding (M=4.01, SD=1.05), School Facilities (M=3.46, SD=1.22), Transportation (M=3.14, SD=1.19) and Curriculum (M=3.50, SD=1.11). These governance challenges were scored on a Likert-type scale instrument, ranging from: 1 “never”, 2 “sometimes”, 3 “often”, 4 “very often ” and 5 “always”. Six out of 7 of the identified governance challenges had a mean of over 3.00, indicating that rural public school superintendents often experience these governance challenges.
Table 4.2 Means of Identified Governance Challenges
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Minimum
Maximum
School Board Relations
Federal/State Mandates
175
175
2.37
3.54
1.14
1.19
1
1
5
5
Teacher Retention
175
3.17
1.19
1
5
Funding
175
4.01
1.05
1
5
Facilities
175
3.46
1.22
1
5
Transportation
175
3.14
1.19
1
5
Curriculum
175
3.50
1.11
1
5
Table 4.3 reflects that no significant difference exists (p=.65) between the means of school board relation challenges among rural public school superintendents (n=175). An F-ratio of .61 was computed, which is less than the critical F-ratio. Data were not statistically significant and support the null hypothesis.
Table 4.3 ANOVA – School Board Relation Challenges
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups .38 4 .59 .61 .65
Within Groups
165.94
170
.97
Total
168.32
174
Table 4.4 reflects that no significant difference exists (p=.11) between the means of federal/state mandate challenges among rural public school superintendents (n=175). An F-ratio of 1.89 was computed, which is less than the critical F-ratio. Data were not statistically significant and support the null hypothesis.
Table 4.4 ANOVA – Federal/State Mandate Challenges
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups 7.17 4 1.79 1.89 .11
Within Groups
161.15
170
.95
Total
168.32
174
Table 4.5 reflects that no significant difference exists (p=.06) between the means of teacher retention challenges among rural public school superintendents (n=175). An F-ratio of 2.23 was computed, which is less than the critical F-ratio. Data were not statistically significant and support the null hypothesis.
Table 4.5 ANOVA – Teacher Retention Challenges
Sum of Squares df Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups
8.39
4
2.09
2.23
.06
Within Groups
159.93
170
.94
Total
168.32
174
Table 4.6 reflects that no significant difference exists (p=.08) between the means of funding challenges as among rural public school superintendents (n=175). An F-ratio of 2.22 was computed, which is less than the critical F-ratio. Data were not statistically significant and support the null hypothesis.
Table 4.6 ANOVA – Funding Challenges
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups
6.31
3
2.10
2.22
.08
Within Groups
162.01
171
.94
Total
168.320
174
Table 4.7 reflects that no significant difference exists (p=.05) between the means of facility challenges among rural public school superintendents (n=175). An F-ratio of 2.34 was computed, which is less than the critical F-ratio. Data were not statistically significant and support the null hypothesis.
Table 4.7 ANOVA – Facility Challenges
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups
8.79
4
2.20
2.34
.05
Within Groups
159.53
170
.94
Total
168.32
174
Table 4.8 reflects that no significant difference exists (p=.20) between the means of transportation challenges among rural public school superintendents (n=175). An F-ratio of 1.49 was computed, which is less than the critical F-ratio. Data were not statistically significant and support the null hypothesis.
Table 4.8 ANOVA – Transportation Challenges
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups
5.69
4
1.42
1.49
.20
Within Groups
162.63
170
.96
Total
168.32
174
Table 4.9 reflects that no significant difference exists (p=.57) between the means of curriculum challenges among rural public school superintendents (n=175). An F-ratio of .72 was computed, which is less than the critical F-ratio. Data were not statistically significant and support the null hypothesis.
Table 4.9 ANOVA – Curriculum Challenges
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups
2.82
4
.71
.72
.57
Within Groups
165.50
170
.97
Total
168.32
174
Quantitative Research Question Two—What are the differences in leadership behaviors as identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states?
H02—There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states.
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) were performed on the data to produce test results for H02. Rural public school superintendents from 5 selected states served as the independent variable, while leadership behaviors served as the dependent variable. Data were measured at a 95% level of significance. Based on an alpha of p=.68, H02 is not rejected.
Table 4.10 reflects the means of characteristics that comprise positive leadership behaviors of rural public school superintendents (n=175): Individualized Influence (Attributed) (M=3.16, SD=0.51), Individualized Influence (Behavior) (M=3.33, SD=0.52), Inspirational Motivation (M=3.45, SD=0.49), Intellectual Stimulation (M=3.19, SD=0.55), Individualized Consideration (M=3.21, SD=0.52), and Contingent Reward (M=3.18, SD=.57). These characteristics were scored on the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X). These scores range from: 0 “not at all”, 1 “once in a while”, 2 “sometimes”, 3 “fairly often”, and 4 “frequently”. All of the positive characteristics had a mean score of over 3.00, indicating that rural public school superintendents fairly often project these characteristics.
Table 4.10 Means of Positive Leadership Behaviors of Rural Public School Superintendents.
N
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Std. Deviation
Individualized
Influence (Attributed)
175
0
4.00
3.16
.51
Individualized
Influence (Behavior)
175
0
4.00
3.33
.52
Inspirational
Motivation
175
0
4.00
3.45
.49
Intellectual
Stimulation
175
0
4.00
3.19
.55
Individualized
Consideration
175
0
4.00
3.21
.52
Contingent Reward
175
0
4.00
3.18
.57
Table 4.11 reflects the means of characteristics that comprise negative leadership behaviors of rural public school superintendents (n=175): Management by Exception – Active (M=1.74, SD=0.88), Management by Exception – Passive (M=1.04, SD=0.64) and Laissez-Faire (M=0.56, SD=.53). These characteristics were scored on the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X). These scores range from: 0 “not at all”, 1 “once in a while”, 2 “sometimes”, 3 “fairly often”, and 4 “frequently”. All of the negative characteristics had a mean score of under 2.00, indicating that rural public school superintendents project these characteristics every once in a while.
Table 4.11 Means of Negative Leadership Behaviors of Rural Public School Superintendents
N
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Std. Deviation
Management by Exception - Active
175
0
4.00
1.74
.88
Management by Exception - Passive
175
0
4.00
1.04
.64
Laissez-Faire
175
0
4.00
.56
.53
Table 4.12 reflects the leadership behaviors of rural public school superintendents (n=175), as scored on the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X). 43.4% (n=76) of rural public school superintendents display transactional leadership behavior and 56.6% (n=99) display transformational leadership behavior.
Table 4.12 Leadership Behaviors of Rural Public School Superintendents Frequency Table
Frequency
Percent
Transactional Leadership
76
43.4
Transformational Leadership
99
56.6
Total
175
100.0
Table 4.13 reflects that no significant difference exists (p=.68) between the mean rating of leadership behaviors among rural public school superintendents (n=175). An F-ratio of .56 was computed, which is less than the critical F-ratio. Data were not statistically significant and support the null hypothesis.
Table 4.13 ANOVA – Leadership Behaviors and Rural Public School Superintendents
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups
.66
4
.16
.56
.68
Within Groups
49.71
170
.29
Total
50.377
174
Quantitative Research Question Three - What are the differences in leadership behaviors as identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states when demographic characteristics (age, gender, educational level, years of experience) are considered?
H03—There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to age.
A factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) were performed on the data to produce test results for H03. Rural public school superintendents from 5 selected states served as the independent variable, leadership behaviors served as the dependent variable, and age served as the factor. Data were measured at the 95% level of acceptance. Based on an alpha of p=.23, H03 is not rejected.
Table 4.14 reflects the age grouping of the target population for rural public school superintendents (n=175). Of the target population of rural public school superintendents, 14.9% (n=26) fell within the 31 – 40 years of age group, 34.3% (n=63) fell within the 41 – 50 years of age group and 50.9% (n=89) fell in the 50+ age group.
Table 4.14 Age Grouping of Rural Public School Superintendents Frequency Table
Frequency
Percent
31-40
26
14.9
41-50
60
34.3
50+
89
50.9
Total
175
100.0
Table 4.15 represents rural public school superintendents leadership behavior, transactional or transformational, as categorized in three age brackets: 31-40 years of; 41-50 years of age; and 50+ years of age (n=175). Transactional leaders (n=76) were distributed within the 31 – 40 age group (n=10), 41 – 50 age group (n=26), and 50+ age group (n=40). Transformational leaders (n=99) were distributed in the 31 – 40 age group (n=16), 41 – 50 age group (n=34), and 50+ age group (n=49).
Table 4.15 Leadership Behavior as Categorized by Age
Leadership Behavior
Age N
Transactional
31-40
10
41-50
26
50+
40
Total
76
Transformational
31-40
16
41-50
34
50+
49
Total
99
Total
31-40
26
41-50
60
50+
89
Total
175
Table 4.16 reflects that no significant difference exists (p=.23) between the leadership behaviors as reported among rural public school superintendents (n=175) with respect to their age. An F-ratio of 1.47 was computed, which is less than the critical F-ratio. Data were not statistically significant and support the null hypothesis.
Table 4.16 ANOVA – Leadership Behavior and Age
Source
Type III Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Intercept
Hypothesis
331.98
1
331.98
699.95 .
000
Error
1.98
4.19
.47(a)
Leadership Behavior
Hypothesis
3.62
1
3.62
2.66
.21
Error
3.41
2.51
1.35(b)
Age
Hypothesis
.77
2
.38
.271
.78
Error
2.85
2
1.42(c)
Leadership Behavior * Age
Hypothesis
2.85
2
1.42
1.47
.23
Error 163.29 169 .96(d)
H04—There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to gender.
A factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) were performed on the data to produce test results for H04. Rural public school superintendents from 5 selected states served as the independent variable, leadership behaviors served as the dependent variable, and gender served as the factor. Data were measured at a 95% level of significance. Based on an alpha of p=.23, H04 is not rejected.
Table 4.17 reflects the gender of the target population for rural public school superintendents (n=175). Of the target population of rural public school superintendents, 64% (n=112) are male and 36% (n=63) are female.
Table 4.17 Gender of Rural Public School Superintendents Frequency Table
Frequency
Percent
Male
112
64.0
Female
63
36.0
Table 4.18 represents rural public school superintendents’ leadership behavior, transactional or transformational, as categorized by their gender (n=175). Transactional leaders (n=76) were identified as male (n=48) and female (n=28). Transformational leaders were identified as male (n=64) and female (n=35).
Table 4.18 Leadership Behavior as Categorized by Gender
Leadership Behavior
Gender
N
Transactional
Male
48
Female
28
Total
76
Transformational
Male
64
Female
35
Total
99
Total
Male
112
Female
63
Total
175
Table 4.19 reflects that no significant difference exists (p=.23) between the leadership behaviors among rural public school superintendents (n=175) with respect to their gender. An F-ratio of 2.27 was computed, which is less than the critical F-ratio. Data were not statistically significant and support the null hypothesis.
Table 4.19 ANOVA - Leadership Behavior and Gender
Source
Type III Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Intercept
Hypothesis
427.09
1
427.09
841.0
.02
Error
.50
1
.50(a)
Leadership Behavior
Hypothesis
.43
1
.43
.08
.81
Error
4.98
1
4.98(b)
Gender
Hypothesis
.50
1
.50
.10
.80
Error
4.98
1
4.98(b)
Leadership Behavior * Gender
Hypothesis
4.98
1
4.98
2.27
.23
Error 161.40 171 .94(c)
H05—There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to educational level.
A factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) were performed on the data to produce test results for H05. Rural public school superintendents from 5 selected states served as the independent variable, leadership behaviors served as the dependent variable, and educational level served as the factor. Data were measured at a 95% level of significance. Based on an alpha of p=.13, H05 is not rejected Table 4.20 reflects the educational level of the population for rural public school superintendents (n=175). Of the population of rural public school superintendents, 1.1% (n=2), hold a bachelors degree, 85.7% (n=150) hold a masters degree 13.1% (n=23) hold a doctoral degree.
Table 4.20 Highest Educational Level of Rural Public School Superintendents Frequency Table
Frequency
Percent
Bachelors
2
1.1
Masters
150
85.7
Doctorate
23
13.1
Total
175
100.0
Table 4.21 represents rural public school superintendents’ leadership behavior, transactional or transformational, as categorized by their highest obtained educational level: bachelors; masters; or doctorate. Transactional leaders (n=76) held bachelors degrees (n=2), masters degrees (n=60), and doctoral degrees (n=14). Transformational leaders (n=99) held masters degrees (n=90) and doctoral degrees (n=9).
Table 4.21 Leadership Behavior as Categorized by Highest Educational Level
Leadership Behavior
Degree
N
Transactional
Bachelors
2
Masters
60
Doctorate
14
Total
76
Transformational
Masters
90
Doctorate
9
Total
99
Total
Bachelors
2
Masters
150
Doctorate
23
Total
175
Table 4.22 reflects that no significant difference exists (p=.13) between the leadership behaviors among rural public school superintendents (n=175) with respect to their highest educational level. An F-ratio of 2.21 was computed, which is less than the critical F-ratio. Data were not statistically significant and support the null hypothesis.
Table 4.22 ANOVA - Leadership Behavior and Highest Educational Level
Source
Type III Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Intercept
Hypothesis
86.71
1
86.71
54.83
.00
Error
8.11
5.1
1.58(a)
Leadership Behavior
Hypothesis
.00
1
.00
.00
.96
Error
2.07
1
2.07(b)
Highest
Hypothesis
4.86
2
2.43
1.52
.41
Educational Level
Error
2.81
1.76
1.59(c)
Leadership Behavior * Highest
Hypothesis
2.07
1
2.07
2.21
.13
Educational Level Error 159.47 170 .93(d)
H06—There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to years of experience.
A factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) were performed on the data to produce test results for H06. Rural public school superintendents from 5 selected states served as the independent variable, leadership behaviors served as the dependent variable, and years as a superintendent served as the factor. Data were measured at a 95% level of significance. Based on an alpha of p=.80, H06 is not rejected Table 4.23 reflects the years as a superintendent of the target population for rural public school superintendents (n=175). Of the target population of rural public school superintendents, 31.4% (n=55) fell within the 1 - 3 years as a superintendent group, 28.6% (n=50) fell within the 4 – 6 years as a superintendent group, 15.4% (n=27) fell within the 7 – 9 years as a superintendent group and 24.6% (n=43) fell in the 10+ years as a superintendent group.
Table 4.23 Years as a Superintendent of Rural Public School Superintendents Frequency Table
Years
Frequency
Percent
1-3
55
31.4
4-6
50
28.6
7-9
27
15.4
10+
43
24.6
Total
175
100.0
Table 4.24 represents rural public school superintendents’ leadership behavior, transactional or transformational, as categorized in four experience level brackets, 1-3 years as a superintendent; 4-6 years as a superintendent; 7-9 years as a superintendent and 10+ years as a superintendent. Transactional leaders (n=76) fell within 1-3 years as a superintendent (n=29); 4-6 years as a superintendent (n=22); 7-9 years as a superintendent (n=7) and 10+ years as a superintendent (n=18). Transformational leaders (n=99) fell within 1-3 years as a superintendent (n=26); 4-6 years as a superintendent (n=28); 7-9 years as a superintendent (n=20) and 10+ years as a superintendent (n=25).
Table 4.24 Leadership Behavior as Categorized by Years as a Superintendent
Leadership
Behavior Years as a
Superintendent
N
Transactional
1-3
29
4-6
22
7-9
7
10+
18
Total
76
Transformational
1-3
26
4-6
28
7-9
20
10+
25
Total
99
Total
1-3
55
4-6
50
7-9
27
10+
43
Total 175
Table 4.25 reflects that no significant difference exists (p=.80) between the leadership behaviors among rural public school superintendents (n=175) with respect to their years as a superintendent. An F-ratio of .32 was computed, which is less than the critical F-ratio. Data were not statistically significant and support the null hypothesis.
Table 4.25 ANOVA - Leadership Behavior and Years as a Superintendent
Source
Type III Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Intercept
Hypothesis
385.02
1
385.02
1579.75
.00
Error
2.15
8.86
.24(a)
Leadership Behavior
Hypothesis
1.39
1
1.39
3.59
.11
Error
2.14
5.51
.38(b)
Years Superintendent
Hypothesis
.47
3
.15
.49
.71
Error
.96
3 .
32(c)
Leadership Behavior * Years Superintendent
Hypothesis
.96
3
.32
.32
.80
Error 165.11 167 .98(d)
Qualitative Data
Qualitative Questions
1. What are the characteristics of rural public school districts?
2. What are the governance challenges facing rural public school superintendents?
3. What are the factors that contribute to superintendent turnover in rural public school districts?
4. What leadership behaviors are practiced to address the current and future challenges facing rural public school superintendents?
5. What knowledge, skills and strategies are utilized by rural public school superintendents to address governance challenges?
Qualitative Research Question One – What are the characteristics of rural public school districts?
Data collected for this question were gathered from answers by both the respondents and from personal observations made by the researcher. Several recurring sub-themes emerged from the interview and personal observations. For purposes of clarity, the researcher has categorized the data into two groups: the rural community and the rural public school.
Community
Rural communities are trying to establish an identity. The local school often serves as the focal point for a majority of the community. Signs and banners greet visitors on main streets listing accomplishments of the school athletic teams and extra-curricular groups. Water towers are adorned with the name of the school mascot. In Texas, football is king among athletic programs. This is especially true in rural communities, as the whole town is engaged for Friday night football. School trappings and paraphernalia are prominently displayed throughout the community, Community wide pep rallies and bonfires are more of the rule than the exception. Athletic events in rural public school districts merit consideration for their “uniqueness.” The following anecdote from a rural public school superintendent can best describe this “uniqueness”:
For a cross country track meet we submitted a bill for two hog callers and a bag of feed cubes. The cross country route went behind the high school and into a pasture. The prior week, the farmer had shot two wild hogs in the pasture. The hog callers were used by the coaches at the north side of the woods to keep the hogs out of the pasture. The bag of feed cubes was used to keep the cows penned up and out of the way of the runners.
Conservative, family oriented values lay the foundation for the social structure in rural communities. Even in the smallest of rural communities church buildings exist—many of them are listed in the historical register, and regularly scheduled religious services are conducted. As noted by one rural public school superintendent, “nothing gets scheduled on a Wednesday night—Baptists are in mid-week services and Catholics are in CCD classes.” Even in small communities private schools, run by local churches, compete for students with the local rural public schools. Many of these private schools have been in existence for decades. It is not uncommon for these schools to share facilities and programs with the rural public school district. It is not uncommon for board members of the rural public school district to have children that attend these private schools.
Service and community organizations are prevalent in rural communities and the expectation for rural school superintendents to participate in these organizations are quite tacit. Community and volunteer fire departments serve these rural communities. Nearly every rural community has a “slogan” or town motto that greets visitors to the community. Festivals and fairs celebrate these mottos and products that are produced or manufactured in the community. Schools will schedule student holidays around these festivals and fairs.
Town squares serve as the commercial hub in many rural communities. These squares are filled with mom and pop stores and other small businesses. Several of the rural communities are served by a general store or feed mill that sells everything from farm implements to deer corn to clothes to hardware to groceries—you can shop or drink a cold beer and visit while they process your deer and make fresh sausage. As expected, pickup trucks and sports utility vehicles are the primary modes of transportation in rural communities. It is not unusual to see farm equipment traversing the streets and roads in rural communities. Large animals and livestock are kept within the confines of the city, with horses being tied up to trees and cattle grazing in backyard pastures.
Rural Public School
Rural public school superintendents can best be described as being a jack of all trades. Rural public school superintendents replied that they have served as custodians, cafeteria workers, bus drivers, substitute teachers, grant writers, maintenance workers, and all around central office gurus. In a few of the smaller rural school districts, the superintendent also serves as principal and teacher. The researcher met one rural public school superintendent as he was teaching physical education classes on the football field.
Typically, rural public schools have small classes and teachers know students and students’ families personally. Teachers are often relatives of the students they teach. It is not unusual to see secondary and elementary students co-mingling together in common areas. Perhaps one rural public school superintendent summed it up best:
In general, rural public school districts are like private or parochial schools in that the teachers, staff members, parents and community members put forth extra effort and are extremely dedicated to their school—they go above and beyond to make sure that their children have the best education possible by doing whatever it takes.
Rural school students normally participate in many activities; with athletics, Future Farmers of America, and 4-H agricultural clubs enlisting a majority of the students. Billboards, roadside signs, and banners typically greet visitors as they drive into town. Listed on these signs and banners are community service organizations, community activities, and accomplishments of the participants in these organizations and activities. Water towers are adorned with the school colors, mascot or slogan. Unlike larger public schools, student athletes are more likely to participate in all the sports offered in rural public schools. One rural public school superintendent stated “rural communities rally around and show tremendous support for extracurricular activities, often times more so than academic activities.” Many campuses in rural public school districts are adjacent to pastures full of livestock and fields full of crops. One rural superintendent responded that:
It is not uncommon to have parents picking up their children in pickup trucks with hay or livestock trailers in tow. I have even had parents pick up their children in a bob-tail semi truck. I have called parents on their cell phones to discuss students. Sometimes they are at home watching tv, sometimes they are on the way to “work” cows and sometimes they are on a tractor shredding a pasture. Nothing surprises you when you work in a rural district.
Rural public school superintendents’ offices are either part of a campus building, usually the high school; or located within walking distance of the campuses. Libraries, and in some instances classrooms, serve as board meeting rooms. A couple of the rural public school superintendents’ offices were located in residential houses that the district had either purchased or accepted as a donation. One of these offices had oak hardwood floors, built-in oak cabinets and a fully functioning wood-burning fireplace. For the most part, rural public school superintendents’ offices were decorated in a professional manner. “Rustic” or “western” motif and furnishings, school memorabilia, Texas flags and maps, and country antiques adorned on the walls. A few of the rural superintendents had mounted deer heads and other small stuffed animals as office decorations. Overall, most rural public school superintendents’ offices reflected the community that they served.
Qualitative Research Question Two – What are the governance challenges facing rural public school superintendents?
The respondent’s answers reflected that they had frequently experienced governance challenges, which often interfere with the daily operations of the school district. Recurring themes regarding governance challenges and problems that emerged from the interviews were: personnel; finance; school facilities; transportation; and federal/state mandates.
Personnel
Problems associated with attracting and maintaining personnel, most notably a stable teaching staff was repeatedly mentioned throughout the interviews. This phenomenon was attributed to several factors. Providing an adequate salary and benefit package severely limits rural public school superintendents in attracting and retaining teachers, particularly in critical need areas. Information gathered by the researcher showed that a majority of rural public school districts pay the state minimum teacher salary, or slightly above the state minimum teacher salary. Additionally, a majority of the larger public schools usually pay well above the state minimum teacher salary, in addition to stipends and incentives. Small, rural public school districts experience difficulty in competing in the “bidding” wars with larger public school districts.
One of the rural public school superintendents responded, “because of the fluctuation in pay scales between school districts, rural public school districts must find other intrinsic motivators to attract teachers.” Other rural public school superintendents stated:
In my district the majority of the teachers were either born and reared in the community, or have a spouse or family members that reside in the community. That is the reason why they teach school in that community. I have to find reasons, besides monetary considerations to attract teachers, many times the allure of a “lifelong” job is the best selling point that I have. Other than that, what can I offer to a young person fresh out of college, as no social activities or opportunities are readily available?
The availability of training/staff development and opportunities for continuing education presents a hurdle for new teachers. More often than not, it is these new teachers that are in need of these activities. Social isolation, adequate and affordable housing for teachers is another concern. Due to these reasons, many teachers do not reside in the community where they teach, they commute from larger communities. Similarly, many teachers use rural public school districts as an entry into the teaching profession and training ground. They leave rural teaching positions as soon as teaching positions in larger districts closer to their residence become available.
Finance
Sporadic, or low average daily attendance and the decline of student enrollment leads to the loss of state and federal funding. Given the small base from which most rural public schools draw, even the absence or loss of a few students can mean major dollars and drastic reductions in operating budgets. One rural public school superintendent lamented:
My district has lost almost 100 students over the past three years. As a result, we lost nearly $ 500,000 in funding and have had to lay-off teachers and cut the budget. I used to have two principals, now I only have one and I have to fulfill those duties. I only have one phys. ed. teacher for K-12 and many of my teachers have multi-grade and multi-content areas to teach.
Many rural public schools have limited resources and small industrial and commercial tax bases. The lion’s share of tax revenue for rural school districts comes from residential and property taxes. Farmers and ranchers in rural areas rely heavily upon tax incentives and reductions based on agricultural exemptions, further reducing the tax base. As noted by a rural superintendent in a small coastal community:
We are a Chapter 41 school district and send a lot of money back to the state due to Robin Hood. Our students have parents that are blue collar workers and my district has over a 80% free and reduced lunch rate. However, our beachfront property is some of the most expensive in the state—it is the weekenders and summer crowds that own this property and make us a Chapter 41 district. Most of them do not have school age children, or their children attend school in other districts. Our local students do not reap any of the benefits.
Facilities
Rural public school districts frequently face a shortage of adequate facilities. Many campuses in rural school district share facilities—cafeterias, libraries, gymnasiums, and classrooms. Additionally, in many rural communities, private schools run by churches share facilities with public schools. In some instances, school facilities also serve as meeting places for local civic organizations and groups. One rural public school superintendent groused:
It’s their money, their schools, and their kids; they can do what they want. This practice is often condoned, as sometimes the school board members of a rural public school district have children that attend those private schools in the community.
Many rural public school districts were formed due to the consolidation of several smaller, community based schools. As a result, some rural schools districts have campuses located in different parts of the community. Elementary students may be bused several miles to one campus, junior high students may be bused several miles to another campus, and high school students may be bused several miles to yet another campus. Many of these campuses and facilities are old and badly in need of repair. Rural public school districts that the researcher visited had a combination of both new and old buildings, some of the districts had wood structures that served as classrooms.
Economies of scale call for rural public school districts to have one main facility, or complex to house all students and school operations. Unfortunately, pressure from each feeder community to keep their “school”, overrides that decision to consolidate campuses. Due to financial constraints, one option that rural public school has is to lease purchase facilities. According to one rural public school superintendent, “rural public school districts have to take a band-aid approach and fix the immediate problems at hand, sometimes fixing one small building at a time.”
Transportation
Although small in student enrollment, many rural public school districts cover a large geographical area. Some rural public school districts have facilities and campuses located in several parts of the community. One rural superintendent noted, “I have to drive 84 miles, one-way, to make a complete visit to all my campuses.” Four of the rural public school districts the researcher visited only served students from kindergarten through 8th grade. These rural public school districts had to bus their secondary students to another public school district several miles away. Another rural public school superintendent reported that she bused her secondary students 25 miles, one-way, to a neighboring high school. Several of the buses that run these routes are older, higher mileage buses, and badly in need of replacement.
Often, teachers and coaches are hired to drive bus routes, as no one else in the community is available to do so. Quite a few rural public school districts do not have adequate bus maintenance facilities, and buses are often left parked on campus parking lots. Additionally, due to fiscal constraints, many rural public schools do not employ a full-time bus mechanic, but rather opt to send buses to private repair shops for routine maintenance and repair. Many of the rural superintendents interviewed reported that they carry a commercial drivers license and sometimes are pressed into service as a bus driver.
Federal/State Mandates
Educational policy swings like a pendulum, vacillating from one end of the spectrum to the other. It appears that every time a legislative body is in session, mandates and guidelines concerning education spew forth. As so eloquently put by one rural public school superintendent:
All these mandates are a load of “horse manure”, we should be about educating children, instead of worrying about red tape, filling out papers and forms and trying to meet impossible and realistic expectations. I spend way too much time on this, as I have no one else in the district to delegate this to.
Maintaining the requirement of highly qualified teachers in content areas is a major concern of rural public school superintendents. Due to the scarcity of teachers, especially teachers in critical needs areas, rural public school teachers may have assignments out of their content area.
Given the limited resources that many rural public school districts have at their disposal, materials for curriculum and staff development to assist teachers in instructing students to meet the demands of high stakes testing may not be available. Overall, the researcher noticed a negative tone on the part of the superintendents was noticed by the researcher when the issues of No Child Left Behind, Adequate Yearly Progress and State testing arose during the interview. One rural public school superintendent quipped,
Seeing how most representatives in legislative bodies are elected from urban and suburban areas, is it any wonder why rural areas get left behind in the process, what do they expect us to do, work miracles with what we don’t have?
Qualitative Research Question Three - What are the factors that contribute to superintendent turnover in rural public school districts? The respondent’s answers reflected that they had experienced challenges from primarily two groups: the rural public school board and the rural community itself.
Board Challenges
Most rural public school superintendents felt that his/her board members were representative of community interests. Private agendas do exist and are usually transparent, given the size of the community. Micromanagement by the school board was the one theme that ran consistently throughout the interviews. One superintendent provided a stirring analogy of the frustration that he sometimes experiences when dealing with school board micromanagement:
Board members like to dwell on minute details and activities that are not directly related to student success and curriculum—dealing with board members can be as much fun as jumping over a fence and eating a handful of dirt.
In order to combat this micromanagement one rural public school superintendent emphasized that “it was important to establish a high level of trust with the school board.” Other rural public school superintendents suggested that the district be managed by the superintendent and the school board, or a “team of 8.” The advice given by the rural public school superintendents concerning board micromanagement and relations was very profound and thought provoking. One rural public school superintendent summed it up, “Develop a positive relationship with the school board, keep them well informed and emphasize board training. The best friend of a superintendent is a well informed school board.
Unfortunately, some rural public school superintendents are brought in with expectations to “clean house”. Sometimes board and community members feel this is the best strategy, as the new superintendent has no ties to the community. The thought process involved is that it is easier for an “outsider” to come in and make necessary changes. That way, the superintendent can be served up as the “scapegoat”, should things go wrong, deflecting criticism away from the school board. Nevertheless, the rural public school superintendency can be rewarding, as long as these words of advice offered by a rural public school superintendent are followed, “ do not plan to stay too long or outstay your welcome, be thankful for the opportunity—you are the boss and final authority, but remember you are also the easiest to fire.”
Like any elective body, board membership is subject to change during every election cycle. Politics play a major role in determining the makeup of the rural public school board. School board politics can provide a major stumbling block in maintaining focus and allowing for micromanagement within a rural public school district. The rural public school superintendent’s position becomes increasingly more challenging when some students with academic or behavior problems have parents
or relative serving on the board. As pointed out by one rural public
school superintendent:
The only requirements to serve as a board member is residence within the district and being of legal voting age, other than that the field is wide open—it is scary to think that someone who never finished the 8th grade and who has had a child that did not make varsity athletics could actually be in “charge” of the district.
Of course, if this strategy does not work, one rural school superintendent suggested a mathematical formula that should be considered when dealing with board micromanagement “learn to count to seven, in a perfect world you would like to have that many board members on your side, but, remember that the magic number is four.”
Community Challenges
Being an outsider, many rural public school superintendents face obstacles when dealing with community members and stakeholders. One superintendent commented on his frustration with community grapevine communications, “they can be bothersome, often times more school business gets conducted over coffee at the local feed store and in informal town meetings than in the board room.” Another rural public school superintendent agreed, “following the chain of command is often difficult for some rural community members and stakeholders, as when they have a “problem” they want to go directly to the superintendent because they demand immediate results.”
Rural public school superintendents have to earn acceptance by the community and stakeholders. This acceptance can be attained by going above and beyond the call of duty by dedicating personal time to the community. One rural public school superintendent volunteered:
You must relate to the community and you must fit into their world. I can drive a double cab, dually pickup worth $50,000 and nobody cares, but let me drive a used Lexus costing $30,000 and the whole community is in uproar.
Qualitative Research Question Four – What leadership behaviors are practiced to address the current and future challenges facing rural public school superintendents?
The respondent’s answers reflected key points and attributes from several management and leadership theories. Attributes from situational, behavioral, transformational, transactional and contingency theories were just a few of the themes that emerged from the interviews: From this list, the researcher narrowed it down to two main attributes: communication and professionalism.
Communication
Almost to the person, rural public school superintendents reiterated the fact that in order to survive a superintendent must have an open door policy and develop strong intra personal communication skills. A healthy relationship with the community and board must be maintained and collaboration is the key. A rural public school superintendent must encourage all stakeholders to share their idea for district improvement and then follow through by addressing shared goals and priorities. One rural public school superintendent noted:
In one way, direct communication with all stakeholders allows the superintendent to have a better understanding of the daily district operations, get to know all of the stakeholders better and can then begin the process of improving the school district.
Other rural public school superintendents suggested:
A rural public school superintendent must look at the long term, has to offer options, be flexible, and learn to give and take. Open communication is the best way to build trust and rapport with all stakeholders. Once this is established, ideas for improvement can be introduced and may have a better chance of being accepted and implemented.
Another rural public school superintendent commented:
You must listen to all stakeholders and be very objective, as there are two sides to every story. More times than not, somewhere in between lies the truth. You must learn to have a thick skin and not to take things too personally.
The superintendency, especially in a rural community is a high profile position. According to one rural public school superintendent, “you must be extremely conscientious in making decisions as people may be watching for inconsistencies in your words and actions.” The rural public school superintendent must be visible in the community, attend events, and be cordial to everyone as people are watching. Often, the superintendent of a rural public school district serves as the “ex-officio” speaker and presenter at public and private events. It is not uncommon for the rural public school superintendent to have a weekly radio address or newspaper column in the local media outlets. As the leader of the rural public school district, the community holds the superintendent accountable for anything that materializes and occurs within the district. One piece of advice that was proffered by a rural public school superintendent was, “be willing to communicate unpopular information by being truthful, people are going to throw rocks, just be careful not to hand them the rocks.”
Professionalism
One rural public school superintendent felt that ultimately, “students, teachers, parents, and rural public school districts benefit from superintendents who really care and are committed to his/her jobs.” Rural public school superintendents can be the highest paid individual and have the greatest amount of formal education in a rural community. As such, they are looked upon as the “expert” person for any problems or issues that arise within a rural community. As noted by one rural public school superintendent, “regardless if issues are school related or not, rural superintendents are the “county” official, they are everything to everybody, as such you must act accordingly.”
Rural public school superintendents have direct contact with students, teachers, parents, and board members. Because of this, a rural public school superintendent can sometimes be confronted with problems and issues before they have had the chance to reflect or investigate the situations. Nonetheless, these stakeholders expect an immediate solution to that problem. To address this, a rural public school superintendent must practice tact, diplomacy, fairness and consistency in addressing these problems. The following words of advice were offered by one rural public school superintendent:
School districts are inanimate objects that do not have any feelings or show any emotions. On the other hand, people whom you offend will never forget, remember all it takes is one “oh-darn” to wipe out a hundred “atta-boys”.
The term “Change Agent” was mentioned by four rural public school superintendents. One rural public school superintendent noted, “to initiate change, rural public school superintendents must lead by example.” Change does not come easy for most people and this can be amplified in rural communities where decades of “tradition” and the mantra “we’ve always done things that way” permeate throughout the community. Another rural public school superintendent recommended “do not play favorites and to make sure that you involve all subordinates and stakeholders in any decisions concerning changing the status quo.” Finally, a commitment to excellence must exist, which includes providing a safe, positive culture and learning environment. One tenet echoed by many of the rural public school superintendents was “is it good for kids?”
Qualitative Research Question Five - What knowledge, skills and strategies are utilized by rural public school superintendents to address governance challenges?
The respondent’s answers reflected that they utilized various strategies and numerous techniques in dealing with governance challenges. One common piece of advice was to ask questions and seek the counsel of experienced rural public school superintendents by networking. Continual professional development and attendance at superintendent academies and retreats were also stressed. Other words of wisdom from rural public school superintendents included “be patient—in many instances you will not see the outcome of a decision until months after the fact” and “know policy and law - keep your attorney’s phone number on speed dial.” An anecdote was told by one rural public school superintendent:
When I became a superintendent my predecessor left me three envelopes. I was given instructions to open them when confronted with serious problems by board members. I was to open the first letter upon encountering the first serious problem, to open the second letter upon encountering the second serious problem and to open the last letter upon encountering the third serious problem. Upon encountering my first problem I opened the letter—it said to blame the previous superintendent. Upon encountering the second serious problem I opened the letter—it said to be patient and to remember that the board member is always right. Upon encountering the third serious problem I opened the letter—it said to write a resignation and to leave three envelopes for my replacement.
Discussion
Quantitative question number one and qualitative questions number two and three were conjoined for analyses. The analyses of these questions were to determine what governance challenges and problems may contribute to the turnover of rural public school superintendents.
These governance challenges and problems were: school board relations; federal/state mandates; teacher retention; funding; facilities; transportation; and curriculum. A null hypothesis, H01, was developed and tested using analyses of variance.
All of the identified governance challenges showed a significance of p>.05, thus H01 was not rejected. Alpha values of these identified challenges and problems were: school board relations (p=.65); federal/state mandates (p=.11) ; teacher retention (p=.06); funding (p=.08); facilities (p=.05); transportation (p=.20) and curriculum (p=.57). Six of these identified governance challenges had a mean score of 3.14 or above, on a scale ranging from 1 – 5, indicating that rural public school superintendents experience these problems quite often.
When asked open-ended questions during the qualitative interview, rural public school superintendents reflected upon some of the same challenges and problems that were identified during the quantitative portion of the study. To be sure, rural public school superintendents in urban, suburban and rural school districts face many of the same governance problems and challenges. However, the extent of exposure to these common governance problems and challenges for rural public school superintendents appear to be more intense than for suburban and urban public school superintendents. This is because that rural public school superintendents generally have no assistant/associate superintendents or directors to whom they can delegate responsibilities and duties. For the most part, urban and suburban rural public school superintendents are insulated from direct contact with the majority of stakeholders in a school district. Layers of bureaucracy act as filters for urban and suburban public school superintendents. In contrast, rural public school superintendents are “one-man” shops and often the first and primary contact for all stakeholders in a rural public school district. This may account for the superintendent retention problem that rural public school districts face.
Qualitative data gathered in the study served to confirm the results obtained during the quantitative portion of the study. It should be noted that one identified factor, school board relations, had a mean score of 2.37, indicating that rural public school superintendents reported that sometimes they may have experienced this problem. During the qualitative portion of the study, all of the rural public school superintendents went into great detail explaining the scope and frequency of the problems and challenges that they had encountered with school board members, especially micromanagement. Quantitative question number two and qualitative questions number four and five were conjoined for analyses. The analyses of these questions were to determine leadership styles and leadership tendencies and attributes that are displayed by rural public school superintendents. A null hypothesis, H02, was developed and tested using an analysis of variance statistical procedure. This analysis of variance produced an alpha of p=.68, showing that there was not a significance between the two leadership behaviors tested, thus H02 was not rejected. Of the 175 rural public school superintendents, 99 were identified as transformational leaders and 76 were identified as transactional leaders by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) survey.
Nine attributes of leadership were measured on a scale from 0 – 4. These attributes were: idealized influence – attributed; idealized influence – behavior; inspirational motivation; intellectual stimulation; individualized consideration; contingent reward; management by exception active; management by exception passive; and laissez-faire.
According to Bass and Avolio (1994) the first six attributes are considered positive leadership indicators; whereas the last three attributes are considered negative leadership indicators. All six of the attributes that are considered positive leadership indicators had a mean score well above 3.00.
These data reflect that rural public school superintendents have a tendency to project or display these positive attributes when dealing with governance challenges and serving as the instructional leader of the district. Conversely, the three attributes that are considered negative leadership indicators had mean scores of 1.74, 1.04 and .56, respectively. These data indicate that rural public school superintendents do not have a tendency to project or display these negative attributes when dealing with governance challenges and serving as the instructional leader of the district.
Similarly, during the qualitative portion of the study, rural public school superintendents reflected both transformational and transactional qualities and attributes. When asked open-ended questions during the qualitative interview, rural public school superintendents reflected upon a variety of attributes concerning leadership behaviors, knowledge and strategies. In addition to displaying transformational and transactional tendencies, rural public school superintendents indicated they also displayed tendencies that are indicative of other leadership behaviors. Servant leadership, situational leadership and behavioral leadership theories were discussed by rural public school superintendents. The data collected would indicate that rural public school superintendents display
a multitude of leadership behaviors, selecting positive or what they perceive as positive attributes from these behaviors.
Attributes of situational leadership were mentioned frequently during the interviews. This could be ascribed to the fact that the quantitative survey was used to measure only transformational or transactional leadership tendencies; whereas open-ended questions, where no specific leadership tendencies were listed, were asked during the qualitative interview. Nonetheless, the qualitative data gathered in the study generally confirmed the results obtained during the quantitative portion of the study. Several rural public school superintendents echoed the sentiment that “what is in the best interest of the students” should guide all decisions.
Quantitative question number three was analyzed to determine if the leadership styles of rural public school superintendents were affected by individual demographics. These demographic factors were age, gender, educational level, and years of experience as a superintendent. Four null hypotheses, H03, H04, H05, and H06 were developed and tested using analysis of variance statistical techniques. H03 was tested using age demographics, H04 was tested using gender demographics, H05 was tested using educational level demographics, and H06 was tested using years of experience as a superintendent demographics.
To test H03, rural public school superintendents were categorized into three age groups: 31 – 40 years of age; 41-50 years of age; and 50+ years of age. An analysis of variance produced an alpha of p=.23, showing that there was not a significance between the leadership styles displayed by rural public school superintendents according to their respective age, thus H03 was not rejected. The majority, 89 (50.9%) of rural public school superintendents fell within the 50+ years of age group, 60 (34.3%) fell within the 41- 50 years of age group and 26 (14.9%) fell within the 31 – 40 years of age group. The data indicate that age is not a factor when determining the leadership style of rural public school superintendents.
To test H04, rural public school superintendents were categorized according to gender. An analysis of variance obtained an alpha of p=.23, indicating that there was not a significance between the leadership styles
displayed by rural public school superintendents according to gender, thus H04 was not rejected. Of the 112 male and 63 female rural public school superintendents, 64 (57%) of the males and 35 (56%) of the females displayed transformational leadership tendencies, while 48 (43%) of the males and 28 (44%) of the females displayed transactional leadership tendencies. Data indicate gender is not a factor when determining the leadership style of rural public school superintendents.
To test H05, rural public school superintendents were categorized according to their highest obtained educational level: bachelors degree; masters degree; or doctoral degree. An analysis of variance obtained an alpha of p=.13, indicating that there was not a significance between the leadership styles displayed by rural public school superintendents according to their highest obtained educational level, thus H05 was not rejected. A majority, 150 (85.7%), of rural public school superintendents held a masters degree, 23 (13.1%) held a doctoral degree, and 2 (1.1%) held a bachelors degree. The data indicate the highest obtained educational level is not a factor when determining the leadership style of rural public school superintendents. Data would further indicate that although it is not a requirement to hold a doctoral degree to become a rural public school superintendent, it is apparent that many rural public school superintendents realize the importance of obtaining one.
To test H06, rural public school superintendents were categorized into four groups representing their experience level as a rural public school superintendent: 1 – 3 years of experience; 4 - 6 years of experience; and 7 – 9 years of experience and 10+ years of experience. An analysis of variance obtained an alpha of p=.80, showing that there was not a significance between the leadership styles displayed by rural public school superintendents according to their experience level, thus H06 was not rejected. Fifty-five (31.4%) of rural public school superintendents had 1 -3 years of experience, 50 (28.6%) had 4 – 6 years of experience, 27(15.4%) had 7 – 9 years of experience, and 43 (24.6%) had 10+ years of experience. The data indicate that years of experience is not a factor in determining the leadership style of rural public school superintendents.
Qualitative question number one was analyzed in an attempt to describe characteristics of rural public school districts. Approximately 63 pages of fieldnotes were taken by the researcher during the interview and observation process. The “typical” rural community has a homogeneous and static population. As noted by one rural public school superintendent “rural communities are looking for an identity.” As such, community pride and traditions run deep, with the school often serving as the focal point for the community. Outsiders can face ostracism, until a social connection to someone in the community is established. Once this has happened, the rural community is very accepting of outsiders. An informal “grapevine” is the most effective means of communication within a rural community. As noted by another rural public school superintendent “a lot business, school and otherwise, is transacted at the local feed store.”
Generally, rural communities are made up of older homes, with very little new construction occurring. It is not uncommon to see farm animals and livestock confined in yards and lots within the town proper. Quite often, the funeral home is the nicest building in the community. Town squares serve as the “commercial” hub for rural communities. These town squares are comprised of antique dealers, small mom and pop general/hardware stores, cafes and diners and some professional offices. The economy is primarily agrarian based, with some light industry and manufacturing facilities. Town slogans and festivals celebrate local commercial and agricultural endeavors.
As to be expected, many social amenities offered in suburban and urban communities are not available in rural communities. These include: arts and entertainment venues; shopping and retail centers; dining establishments; and institutions of higher learning. On the other hand, many activities that are a routine part of rural communities can not be found in urban and suburban communities. A strong bond connects rural communities to religious activities. Church and religion is an important part of the rural culture, with many school and town events being scheduled to avoid conflict with religious services. As reported by one rural public school superintendent “nothing gets scheduled on Wednesday night, as Catholics are attending CCD classes and Baptists are in mid-week services.” Agricultural and service based clubs and organizations seem to have strong support in rural communities. Community and volunteer fire departments are the main public safety organizations. Overall, a slower, more relaxed atmosphere permeates throughout a rural community.
Rural communities are very supportive of school personnel and school activities. As noted by one rural public school superintendent “rural schools are often the largest employer in the community and the school administrators are the highest paid individuals in the community.” Because of this, rural communities can be very demanding and unforgiving of school personnel and school activities when the community perceives an “injustice”. These injustices frequently revolve around extra-curricular activities, rather than academic activities. Rural public schools tend to have smaller classes and share facilities. It is not uncommon for rural school faculty and staff members to be generational, in that these employees were reared and attended school in the very facilities where they now work. Many spouses and first generational relatives are employed by rural public schools. Rural public school districts are comprised of centralized leadership, often having only a handful of administrators in the district. Because of this, rural public school superintendents serve in a multitude of roles and shoulder numerous responsibilities and duties.
Summary
Quantitative data were collected for the study by administering a survey (n=175) to rural school superintendents in 5 selected states and analyzed utilizing SPSS12.0 statistical software. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and factorial analyses of variance (ANOVA) were the statistical methodologies utilized to examine data. An alpha level of p< .05 was established as the threshold to either accept or reject the null hypotheses. Based on the p values produced by the statistical analysis of the data, all null hypotheses were not rejected. Qualitative data were collected by personal interview (n=30) with rural public school superintendents in 5 selected states. Data gleaned from these interviews were analyzed for emerging themes and coded accordingly.
A discussion of the findings included the comparison, conjoining and analyses of the numerical data from the quantitative portion of the study and the qualitative themes that emerged. Quantitative question number one was paired with qualitative questions numbers two and three. Quantitative question number two was paired with qualitative questions number four and five. Quantitative questions number three and qualitative question number one were stand alone questions and analyzed accordingly.
James D. Laub, PhD
Dr. Ben C. DeSpain
Dissertation Chair
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis
Dissertation Committee Member
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
A summary of the study, research questions, hypotheses, methods, and findings are presented in Chapter V. Conclusions are drawn from the review of the literature, hypotheses, and the quantitative and qualitative research questions posed during the study. Implications and recommendations for further studies are included.
Summary of the Study
Statement of the Problem
According to Howley and Pendarvis (2002) rural school districts are finding it difficult to retain qualified superintendents. As the complexity of the superintendency has increased, so have the fears of a dwindling pool of qualified superintendent candidates (Lashway, 2002). Further, predictions loom of an increasingly high turnover rate in the superintendency, reaching perhaps as high as 40% to 50% in the upcoming years (Stricherz, 2001). To complicate matters, a decreasing number of applicants in the pool for superintendent vacancies create a challenge for school districts, particularly those that are rural and small (Cooper, Fusarelli & Carella 2000; Johnson & Howley, 2001).
Educational governance challenges are major contributing factors that lead to turnover in the superintendency for rural public schools. In turn, superintendent turnover negatively impacts school districts and ultimately influence student achievement and success. Therefore, the stability of the superintendency can have an impact on the school district and all stakeholders of the school district (Kowalski, 1999). Excessive turnover caused by a high rate of turnover in the superintendency can detract from the espoused purpose of educating students (Chance & Capps, 1992).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to analyze the characteristics of rural public school districts and rural public school superintendents. Particularly, leadership behaviors that are exhibited by superintendents in rural public school districts were identified and investigated, in an attempt to appreciably identify best practices. Even in the best of circumstances leadership is difficult. Many of the constraints that have historically inhibited the abilities of rural public school districts can be overcome provided the school leadership is stable and dedicated to excellence.
Another rationale for completing the study was to scrutinize the possible reasons for turnover among rural public school district superintendents. Superintendents are the key element in the stability equation, and the increased tenure of superintendents is essential to sustained educational reform. Beeson and Strange (2003) reported that many believe superintendents in rural public school districts encounter unique challenges and situations. Challenges encountered by rural public school superintendents are: school board relations; federal/state mandates; teacher retention; funding; facilities; transportation; and curriculum.
The following research questions guided the study:
Quantitative Questions
1. What are the differences in identified governance challenges (school board relations, federal/state mandates, teacher retention, finance, facilities, transportation, curriculum) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states?
2. What are the differences in leadership behaviors as identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states?
3. What are the differences in leadership behaviors as identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states when demographic characteristics (age, gender, educational level, years of experience) are considered?
Qualitative Questions
1. What are the characteristics of rural public school districts?
2. What are the governance challenges facing rural public school superintendents?
3. What are the factors that contribute to superintendent turnover in rural public school districts?
4. What leadership behaviors are practiced to address the current and future challenges facing rural public school superintendents?
5. What knowledge, skills, and strategies are utilized by rural public school superintendents to address governance challenges?
Null Hypotheses
H01 – There are no statistically significant differences in identified governance challenges (school board relations, federal/state mandates, teacher retention, finance, facilities, transportation, curriculum) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states.
H02 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states.
H03 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to age.
H04 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to gender.
H05 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to educational level.
H06 – There are no statistically significant differences in the leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X) among superintendents in rural public school districts in 5 selected states with respect to experience level.
Method of Procedure
Methods of the research incorporated a mixed-methods design, consisting of both a qualitative and quantitative portion. Data for the quantitative portion of the study were gathered utilizing a cross-sectional survey. Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) defined a cross-sectional survey as “collecting information from a sample that has been drawn from a predetermined population. The time it takes to collect all of the data desired may take anywhere from a day to a few weeks or more” (p. 397). Descriptive quantitative data were gathered through a survey and by extracting pertinent data from extant databases.
One thousand fifty-two (1,052) rural public school superintendents from five states: Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arkansas and Arizona were identified as the target population for the study. Three hundred and eighty (380) rural public school superintendents from these states were selected by simple random sampling to participate in the study. From this sample population, 175 usable participant responses to the survey were received, producing an overall return rate of 44%. One-way and factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical procedures were performed on quantitative data gathered from the survey and the extant databases. According to Isaac and Michael (1997) analysis of variance is a strategy where two or more groups sampled from the same population are examined, with the focus on the interaction of the groups rather than the main effects.
Naturalistic inquiry was the primary method utilized to gather qualitative data for the study. Naturalistic research is based on the philosophical viewpoint of phenomenology allowing multiple realities arising from natural differences in the development of human perception (Isaac & Michael, 1997). Thirty (30) rural public school superintendents, selected through convenience sampling, were interviewed through relaxed and somewhat informal, but professional, interviews in order to establish credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability of the procedures and findings. Qualitative data were analyzed for recurring themes and coded accordingly. Coding categories were constructed from the concepts and themes that emerged during the interview process and from the review of the literature. Refined and coded data were used to explain and enhance the statistical data drawn from the quantitative portion of the study.
Conclusions
Converged data and ideas gleaned from the review of the literature, the quantitative portion of the study, and the qualitative portion of the study, were analyzed to develop reasonable conclusions about the findings. As such, triangulation of the data from these three sources produced the following conclusions:
Conclusion 1: Governance challenges and problems have a direct impact on a rural public school superintendents’ job performance and job stability.
Conclusion 2: The scope and function of a rural public school superintendents’ responsibilities and duties appear to be unique, and may not reflect the scope and function of suburban and urban public school superintendents’ responsibilities and duties.
For quantitative question one and qualitative questions two and three, a review of the literature revealed that school board relations, federal/state mandates, curriculum, personnel, finance, facilities, and transportation issues are the seven most common challenges that a rural public school superintendent faces (Johnson & Strange, 2005).
H01 was developed to test the statistical means of these seven challenge areas as reported by rural public school superintendents. Analyses of variance reflected that six of the identified challenges and problems had a significance of p>.05. Based on this, H01 was not rejected. The alphas of these identified challenges and problems were: school board relations (p=.65); federal/state mandates (p=.11); teacher retention (p=.06); funding (p=.08); facilities (p=.05); transportation (p=.20); and curriculum (p=.57). Additional analyses of the data showed that six of these challenges had a mean score of 3.14 or above, on a scale from 1-5, indicating that rural public school superintendents experience these challenges quite often.
Qualitative data gathered and analyzed from the study revealed that rural school superintendents face a variety of challenges and are responsible for a multitude of tasks and functions. These challenges and responsibilities reflect those borne out in the review of the literature and the challenges that were tested during the quantitative portion of the study. Challenges concerning board relations and micromanagement, finance and funding issues, and teacher recruitment and retention were the most widely reported challenges discussed by rural public school superintendents during the interviews. On dealing with board micromanagement, one rural public school superintendent quipped:
Board members like to dwell on minute details and activities that are not related to student success and curriculum, dealing with board members can be as much fun as jumping over a fence and eating a handful of dirt.
In dealing with financial constraint, one rural public school superintendent reported:
My district has lost almost 100 students over the past three years. As a result, we lost nearly $500,000 in funding and have had to lay-off teachers and cut the budget. I used to have two principals, now I only have one and I have to fulfill those duties. I only have one physical education teacher for K-12 and many of my teachers have multi-grade and multi-content areas to teach.”
On matters of teacher recruitment and retention, another rural public school superintendent retorted:
I have to find reasons, besides monetary considerations to attract teachers, many times the allure of a “lifelong” job is the best selling point that I have. Other than that, what can I offer to a young person fresh out of college, as no social activities or opportunities are readily available?
Data collected and analyzed during the quantitative and qualitative portions of the study mirrored the findings reported in the review of the literature, concerning challenges faced by rural public school superintendents. Brunner (2002) reported that superintendents of schools often relate that very few people in schools or in the broader public are aware of the nature of their position. Most superintendents in small districts virtually have no support staff, especially in the areas of curriculum and instruction (Kowalski, 2005). One rural public school superintendent stated, “I have picked up trash, drove a bus, disciplined students, unclogged toilets, cooked breakfast, and chased a skunk out of the flowerbed.”
Serving as a combination superintendent/principal is not unusual in a rural school district (Peca, 2003). Rural public school superintendents have to assume more responsibilities (e.g. instructional leader, athletic director, bus driver) because there are fewer administrators in the district (Arnold, 2004). Inadequate attention to researching challenges in rural education is an issue of local, state, regional, and national interest, it is an issue likely to become more critical as accountability results are expected from public investments in education (Harmon, 2001). Beeson and Strange (2003) claimed these challenges have a direct impact on superintendent retention.
Conclusion 3: Although rural public school superintendents in the study were identified as either transformational or transactional leaders, it would appear that rural public school superintendents display a variety of leadership behaviors.
Conclusion 4: Although rural public school superintendents were identified as being either transformational or transactional leaders, overall these superintendents display positive leadership attributes far more frequently than negative attributes.
For quantitative question two and qualitative questions four and five, a review of the literature revealed that some difference exists between transformational and transactional leadership styles. However, the review of the literature also revealed that a variety of leadership styles, including transformational and transactional leadership, have many commonalities and quite often build upon and enhance one another. Vague definitions of leader “types” have long been popular in the literature, but they are often simplistic stereotypes with limited utility in understanding effective leadership (Yukl, 1999). The essence of educational leadership has been the ability to understand the theories and concepts and then apply them in real life scenarios (Morrison, Rha, & Hellman, 2003). Leadership practices take form in the interaction between leaders and followers, leaders act in situations that are defined by subordinates’ actions (Spillane, 2005).
The quantitative portion of the study revealed little difference exists between leadership styles of rural public school superintendents in the selected states. H02 was developed to test the statistical means of leadership behaviors reported by rural public school superintendents on the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X). An analysis of variance statistical test that measured the statistical means produced a p value of p= .68, thus not rejecting H02. Nine attributes of leadership behaviors serve as indicators in determining transformational or transactional leadership. Of these nine attributes, six are considered positive attributes and three are considered negative attributes. Quantitatively, rural public school superintendents had mean scores of over 3.00, on a scale from 1 – 4, on the six positive attributes. Conversely, mean scores for the three negative attributes were 1.74, 1.04 and .56, respectively.
To corroborate this, data gleaned from the qualitative portion revealed that the majority of the rural public school superintendents reported several leadership characteristics and behaviors. Specific leadership theories such as situational leadership, management by walking around and behavioral leadership were just some of the leadership theories reported during the interviews. Common themes of collaboration, empowerment and open, honest communication were identified during the interviews. As noted by one rural public school superintendent “in one way, direct communication with all stakeholders allows the superintendent to have a better understanding of daily district operations, get to know all of the stakeholders better, and can then begin the process of improving the district.”
Bennis and Nanus (1985) articulated that leaders who manifest collaborative tendencies bring about a confidence on the part of subordinates, these leaders are challengers, not coddlers. According to Bass (1985) leaders motivate subordinates to perform beyond desired expectations by inspiring, stimulating, and developing a higher collective purpose and vision. As noted by one rural public school superintendent “I believe that the best instruction comes from group effort and committed implementation. It is far easier to maintain high standards and hold staff accountable when the staff are given a chance to provide input on instructional decisions.” Collaborative leadership helps people understand the problems that they face, help them manage these problems, and help them learn to live with them (Sergiovanni, 2005). As public school districts move away from centralized decision-making, educational administrators must be competent to solicit input, analyze information, and build consensus among all stakeholders (Barnett, 2004).
Bass and Avolio (1994) alleged that developing trust by empowering subordinates to demonstrate their abilities, will challenge subordinates to develop new abilities and seek unanticipated challenges. Bennis (1997) postulated that adaptive leaders work with their followers to generate creative solutions to complex problems, while also developing them to handle a broader range of leadership responsibilities. One rural public school superintendent suggested “be an advisor/delegator, hire good people and get out of their way. Allow people to make mistakes, learn, and discover by giving people the benefit of the doubt.” According to Liethwood and Riehl (2003) leadership is work done to meet needs, it responds to exigencies to accomplish goals. A plethora of intoxicating visions and noble intentions exist, many leaders have rich and deeply textured agendas, but without communications neither will come to fruition (Bennis & Nanus, 1985). In summation, Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson (2003) stated “for optimal organizational effectiveness, leaders should be both transformational and transactional.
Conclusion 5: Demographics do not have a significant impact in regards to leadership tendencies and behaviors displayed by rural public school superintendents.
For quantitative question three, demographic indicators of age, gender, educational level and years of experience were tested. H03, H04, H05 and H06 were developed to test the statistical means of rural public school superintendents leadership behavior and demographic factors. H03 tested the age factor, H04 tested the gender factor, H05 tested the educational level factor, and H06 tested the years of experience factor. A factorial analysis of variance produced p values of p=.23 for age, p=.23 for gender, p=.13 for educational level, and p=.80 for years of experience, thus, H03, H04 H05 and H06 was not rejecting.
Conclusion 6:
For qualitative question one a review of the literature provided both a positive and negative aspect of rural communities. A strong sense of kinship normally permeates throughout the rural community, relationships and connections to other people are highly valued (Howley & Howley, 2006; Kannapel & DeYoung, 1999). These connotations spill over and define rural public schools, as many see the role of rural schools as serving the local community, the school should both reflect and shape the community (Woodrum, 2004). One rural public school superintendent concurred:
You must relate to the community and you must fit into their world. I can drive a double cab, dually pickup worth $50,000 and nobody cares, but let me drive a used Lexus costing $30,000 and the whole community is in an uproar.”
Another rural public school superintendent replied:
In general, rural public school districts are like private or parochial schools in that the teachers, staff members, parents and community members put forth extra effort and are extremely dedicated to their school, they go above and beyond to make sure that their children have the best education possible by doing whatever it takes.
Harmon (2001) wrote that the term “rural” connotes a positive, intrinsic value expressed by descriptions such as pastoral, bucolic, and untamed. To illustrate, one rural public school superintendent provided the following anecdote:
For a cross country track meet we submitted a bill for two hog callers and a bag of feed cubes. The cross country route went behind the high school and into a pasture. The prior week, the farmer had shot two wild hogs in the pasture. The hog callers were used by the coaches at the north side of the woods to keep the hogs out of the pasture. The bag of feed cubes was used to keep the cows penned up and out of the way of the runners.
Across rural communities, it often seems that fences circumscribe political boundaries, blocking economic growth’ and hindering collaboration with the larger society, ultimately affecting rural schools (Stark, 2005).
Rural communities that are not in relatively close proximity to larger communities tend to have higher poverty rates and provide fewer occupational, social and educational opportunities for their students (Kannapel & Young, 1999). Rural public school districts reflect the economic and social stratification of their communities, and are influenced more strongly by the cultural and economic outlook of the community (Harmon, 2001). Not only are rural public schools faced with trying to piece together and capitalize on the remnants of their remaining uniqueness, but they must do so under a barrage of ongoing reforms seeking to integrate rural public schools into the national system (Howley, 2004; Woodrum, 2004). Conversely, the aesthetic values and quality of life afforded by rural communities can outweigh any negative connotations.
Implications
The scope of responsibilities and role of the rural public school superintendent must not be ignored. The rural public school superintendent is the instructional leader for the district. Ultimately, the responsibility for student achievement and the overall operation of the district is their responsibility. The stability of the superintendency can have an impact on the school district and all stakeholders of the school district (Kowalski, 1999). Therefore, it is imperative that potential rural public school superintendents thoroughly evaluate the rural public school district that they want to lead, comparing that with their own leadership style and expectations, in order to ensure that all parties share a common value. That value being what is in the best interests of the students and the rural public school district, not what is in the best interests of the potential rural public school superintendent. If not, it is
the ethical and moral obligation of the potential rural public school superintendent to seek employment opportunities elsewhere.
Howley (2004) represented that most educational researchers tolerate the view that the rural “setting” need not be taken too seriously, at least not by the education profession. The apparent lack of high-quality research on rural education, limited funding for rural education research, and inconsistent definitions of “rural”, have led many to conclude that rural education research is limited and of poor quality (Arnold, Newman, Gaddy, & Dean 2005). Educational reform efforts that have been undertaken in suburban and urban public schools may not necessarily be germane to rural public school districts (Bauch, 2001). Unfortunately, much of the rural research literature today appears to surface as a nostalgic tribute to days gone by, reflecting an attitude that the rural way of life represents ignorance and provincialism (Kannapel & DeYoung, 1999).
School leadership is most successful when it is focused on goals related to teaching and learning (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). Unfortunately, governance challenges and problems often stand in the way of these goals. Governance challenges are a leading reason that rural public school superintendents are vacating their positions.
In a perfect world, literature concerning governance challenges and problems would be abundant and readily available for current and potential rural public school superintendents to access. However, very little research-based literature focuses on the governance challenges faced by rural public school superintendents (Garn, 2003).
One hundred five, or 60%, of the 175 superintendents surveyed have less than 7 years of experience. This is indicative of a low retention rate among rural public school superintendents. It appears that rural public school superintendents leave the rural superintendency after a few years, perhaps using small, rural public school districts as a stepping stone to positions in other districts. To complicate matters, 89, or 50.9%, of the 175 superintendents’ fall within the 50+ age group, indicating that in the very near future several openings for superintendents in rural public school districts will emerge, due to retirements. These scenarios may lead to a possible shortage of qualified candidates to fill these positions. In spite of this, leadership preparation programs are not providing the necessary training to prepare educational leaders (Barnett 2004; Brunner, 2002). Rural public school superintendents need a thorough grounding in the complexities of instructional leadership. A few courses in instructional leadership will not suffice, especially where rural leadership is concerned.
Recommendations for Further Study
The goal of the study was to analyze and examine the characteristics of rural public schools and rural public school superintendents. The research derived from the study produced a large amount of data. This, coupled with the above average response rate should provide an accurate and representative description of the characteristics of rural public schools and rural public school superintendents. Upon reflection the researcher believes there is fertile ground for further investigation into issues relating to rural education and the rural public school superintendency. These investigations include, but are not limited to:
1. Duplication of the study including a larger geographical area and a larger population of rural public school superintendents.
2. Study comparing governance challenges and problems of urban, suburban, and rural public school districts and superintendents.
3. Investigation of alternative management theories to help identify leadership strategies for rural public school superintendents.
4. Study of the efficacy of educational preparation programs for aspiring rural public school superintendents.
5. Comprehensive analysis of rural public school superintendent demographics.
James D. Laub, PhD
Dr. Ben C. DeSpain
Dissertation Chair
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis
Dissertation Committee Member
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Yukl, G. (1998). Leadership in organizations (4th Edition). New Jersey, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Analyzing the Learning Environment
Contributed by: Irma Marshall
Submitted by William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Questions that should be considered when reading this chapter:
• What factors contribute to a successful learning environment?
• What are the three domains of learning?
• What the four learning style modalities?
• What is a standard-based curriculum?
• What are the six principles of behavior management?
The basic goal in education is to establish and maintain a successful learning environment. Educational leaders should consider several factors in the effort of creating a learning environment that is conducive to successful learning. Among these factors to be considered are the allowances made for the student’s learning styles and the acknowledgements of the impact it has on quality education. The needs of the learner should be the basics for all instructional methodologies and curriculum design. Another factor to consider in successful learning environments is effective behavior management. Behavior management is a foundation in successful learning environments.
Learning Domains:
A comprehensive definition of learning style has been adopted by the national task force, comprised of leading theorists in the field and sponsored by the National Association of Secondary School Principals. This group defined "learning styles" as the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment (Keefe, 1979). These factors are direct consequences of Bloom’s Taxonomy developed in 1956.
Bloom’s Taxonomy defines the cognitive domain as the acquisition of knowledge. It has three instructional levels including fact, understanding, and application. The fact level is a single concept and uses verbs like define, identify, and list. The understanding level puts two or more concepts together. Typical verbs for this level include describe, compare and contrast. The application level puts two or more concepts together to form something new. Typical verbs at this level include explain, apply, and analyze (Vogler, 1991).
The affective domain is defined through Blooms as being based upon aspects of behavior. The three levels in the domain are awareness, distinction, and integration. The verbs for this domain are limited to words like display, exhibit, and accept. The first two levels are cognitive; integration is behavioral and requires the learner to evaluate and synthesize (Vogler, 1991).
The psychomotor domain of Bloom’s Taxonomy is skill oriented. The student produces products. The three practical instructional levels include imitation, practice, and habit. The psychomotor domain is based on a demonstration delivery and the first level, imitation, will be a return of the demonstration. The practice level will be a proficiency building experience that may be conducted by the student without direct supervision. The habit level is reached when the student can perform the skill in twice the time that it takes an expert to perform (Bloom,1956).
Learning Styles
Teaching individuals through their learning-style strengths improves their achievement, self-esteem, and attitudes toward learning (Dunn & Dunn, 1999). Children learn in different ways and should be taught in the method that is conducive to their learning style. These learning styles involve four modalities: auditory, visual, tactual and kinesthetic.
Children who are auditory learners find it easy to learn by listening. They enjoy dialogues, discussions, and plays. They often do well working out solutions or problems by talking them out. They are easily distracted by noise and often need to work where it is relatively quiet. Students often do best using recorded books (Learning, 2000). Often information written down will have little meaning to the auditory learner until it has been heard - it may help auditory learners to read written information out loud.
Visual learners make up around 65% of the population (Learning Styles, 2000). Students who have visual strength or preference like the teacher to provide demonstrations. They find it easy to learn through descriptions. They often use lists to keep up and to organize thoughts. They often recognize words by sight. They often have well developed imaginations. Visual learners relate most effectively to written information, notes, diagrams and pictures. Typically they will be unhappy with a presentation where they are unable to take detailed notes - to an extent information does not exist for a visual learner unless it has been seen written down. This is why some visual learners will take notes even when they have printed course notes on the desk in front of them (Dunn & Dunn,1999).
Tactile learners are students who have an tactual strength or preference often do best when they take notes either during a lecture or when reading something new or difficult. They often like to draw or doodle to remember. They do well with hands-on such as projects, demonstrations, or labs (Learning Styles, 2000).
Kinesthetic learners make up around 5% of the population (Learning Styles, 1996). Kinesthetic learners are students who have a kinesthetic strength or preference often do best when they are involved or active. These students often have high energy levels. They think and learn best while moving. They often loose much of what is said during lecture and have problems concentrating when asked to sit and read. These students prefer to do rather than watch or listen. Kinesthetic Learners learn effectively through touch and movement and space, and learn skills by imitation and practice. Predominantly kinesthetic learners can appear slow, in that information is normally not presented in a style that suits their learning methods.
Curriculum Design
Curriculum development is an issue facing many school districts. The accountability issue along with the need for standard implementation has caused districts to feel an urgency to design a curriculum which is assessment driven. Many educators and advisory groups emphasize high standards as an important factor in improving the quality of education for all students. As a result, schools and districts are looking at ways to develop a high-quality curriculum that is based on standards (Pattison & Berkas, 2000).
"The standards-based movement in America is on solid footing and is slowly but surely changing the way we think of teaching and learning in America's classrooms," states the American Federation of Teachers (1999). "Nearly three-fourths of the teachers who have worked with standards for at least six years say the standards have had a positive impact on their schools." (p. 12). Ravitch (1995) adds, "Standards can improve achievement by clearly defining what is to be taught and what kind of performance is expected" (p. 25). Many efforts to improve education begin with the process of integrating standards into the curriculum.
"The idea behind standards-based reform is to set clear standards for what we want students to learn and to use those academic standards to drive other changes in the system," notes the American Federation of Teachers (1999). Standard-based curriculum development includes not only curriculum but it includes instruction, and assessment but also professional development, parent and community involvement, instructional leadership, and the use of technology and other resources. Curriculum development is a continual process.
Behavior Management
Management of student behavior is a major concern of teachers because of its importance in establishing a successful learning environment. Creating the opportunity to learn and develop both academic and behavioral skills is essential to an effective classroom. The overall purpose of behavior management is to aid students in displaying behaviors conducive to learning (Instructional Resources, 2000).
Behavior management is a process that involves strategies that assist in managing students and promoting positive behavior. There are six principles that should be considered in the process of creating a successful learning environment:
• Negative consequences sometimes change behavior, but they do not change attitude.
• Only positive reinforcement strategies produce long-term attitudinal change.
• Negative consequences do not improve the behavior of impulsive children and frequently increase the frequency and intensity of misbehavior.
• Cognitive control of behavior can be learned through the use of appropriate positive reinforcement systems.
• Positive reinforcement systems must be incremental in nature such that the child can directly observe even small improvements in behavior.
• You must always reinforce the final compliance with adult authority no matter how long it takes to get there (Walker, 1997).
Behavior is a concern for educators because it is related to effective learning from both the student's and teacher's perspective. When a classroom is free of behavior disruptions, students can use classroom time for effective learning.
A successful learning environment is the ultimate goal of all school districts. Certain factors should be considered in the quest for this ultimate goal. Individual learning styles, curriculum aligned with academic standards and maintaining effective behavior management are factors that should be used in the analysis of successful learning environments.
Definitions:
• Learning Style: the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment (Keefe, 1979).
• Cognitive domain: the acquisition of knowledge (Bloom, 1956).
• Affective domain: based upon aspects of behavior (Bloom, 1956).
• Psychomotor domain: based upon skill acquisition (Bloom, 1956).
• Standards-based reform: is to set clear standards for what we want students to learn and to use those academic standards to drive other changes in the system (AFT, 1999).
• Behavior management: the process that involves strategies that assist in managing students and promoting positive behavior (Walker, 1997).
Links
Learning Styles and Domains:
Applying What We Know Student Learning Styles:
http://www.csrnet.org/csrnet/articles/student-learning-styles.html
Learning Styles: Nurturing the genius in each child:
http://www.geocities.com/~educationplace/ls.html
How Your Learning Style Affects Your Use of Mnemonics:
http://www.mindtools.com/mnemlsty.html
Curriculum Design:
Critical Issue: Integrating Standards into the Curriculum
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/currclum/cu300.htm
What a Curriculum Should Contain:
http://www.ils.nwu.edu/e-for-e/nodes/NODE-72-pg.html
Behavior Management:
Behavior Articles:
http://cpt.fsu.edu/tree/behavior.html
Six Principles of Behavior Management:
http://www.wm.edu/TTAC/articles/challenging/six.htm
Behavior Management:
http://www.para.unl.edu/para/Behavior/Intro.html
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Community Development
Contributed by Linda Thomas
According to the professor, the most important areas to study for the Comprehensive Exam in the area of Community Development are those included in the study guides that the class received in preparation for the class tests. In addition, the following questions and areas are emphasized as potential questions. Additional questions are added from the study guide after the special emphasis areas.
Potential Questions with Special Emphasis
1. Compare and contrast gemeinschaft and gesellschaft communities, noting the types of social relations in each.
2. Considering Fellin's description of concentration and segregation, how has concentration and segregation affected public school funding, fiscal management and maintenance of school buildings?
3. Fellin writes that "an important feature of social systems theory is the specification of boundaries of the system in relation to its environment.” Describe the geographical and psychological boundaries of a typical South Texas rural school district. Fellin notes that there is a second feature of a systems model, the interaction of the system with 'outside' systems beyond its own boundary. Using the same rural district, describe the regional, state, and national entities with which the school district interacts as part of its system.
4. Using your school district, describe the social class of the student body and the extent of class awareness.
5. Characterize and define 'underclass' according to Fellin. Then debate the extent to which there is an 'underclass’ in your school district and school.
6. Given the mobility of Americans within and between communities, identify factors that can influence, positively or negatively, the social issues of neighborhoods.
7. Describe how voluntary associations affect the public school setting?
8. How does Fellin describe the connection between volunteer involvement and empowerment at personal, political, and interpersonal levels in the Latino community?
9. The population of South Texas is predominantly Mexican-American, yet Fellin writes that minorities tend not to participate in voluntary associations because of cultural inhibition. How can self-help organizations help the dominant Hispanic population in South Texas overcome cultural inhibition?
10. Debate the advantages and disadvantages of multiculturalism. Identify the difficulties in implementing this type of curriculum.
11. Identify the stakeholders in a school bond election.
12. Discuss the issues in redrawing the boundaries of school districts.
13. Identify the factors that create a positive neighborhood community and
a positive school community.
14. How does the role of religion in the lives of students and their families impact on schools in South Texas.
15. Discuss the Communitarian movement and its development.
16. As a superintendent, how would you implement the Communitarian agenda in your school district.
17. Discuss how school reform movements attempt to bring about equalization of educational resources for school districts and the two major types of funding requests, for millage renewals and increases for their budgets and bond proposals usually for new schools and school renovations (Fellin, Chapter 9, p. 171, 1995).
Special Emphasis Topic
The following area was not formulated into question, but it is a critical and timely topic with special emphasis.
1. School Reform to improve the educational system
Study Guide Questions
The following are questions from the Mid-term Study Guide, 2000:
1. Communities are distinguished by common locality, or place, by non- place characteristics, and in terms of an individual’s “personal community.” Choose one of the types of communities that you are involved in and discuss three advantages and one disadvantage to being a member in this community.
2. Individuals participate in multiple communities. Choose a role of superintendent, principal, or teacher and discuss as many of the communities you can think of that the person in this position would be involved in due to their profession.
3. Of the four conditions that enhance the competent functioning of a locality-based community, which has the greater significance and why?
4. Ravendale is a “welfare community” where violence is a part of life. Drive-by shootings, gang-related activities, drug abuse and drug trafficking are an every day occurrence. In regard to “community competence” what can the citizens of Ravendale do to save their community.
5. In Warren’s discussion of “What is a good community? What are the four values that appear to compose a good community and how do these relate to education?”
6. Is a school a special type of “planned community”? Review the characteristics of planned communities in the textbook and compare those characteristics to a school community.
7. What effect does public education have on the five identified functions that a community performs?
8. In an attempt to introduce the competitive elements of a free market economy into an educational system built on a tradition of cooperation, business and political interests are introducing various programs and accountability measurements into the ‘ecological system’ of education. How could the ecologists’ definition of “competition” help a school develop a mentality to adapt to the new climate?
9. Fellin cites a framework for understanding the activities of a local community. He calls it a “community as an ecology of games.” What are some of the “games” in a school district, and how does a newcomer learn the rules to those “games”?
10. Describe the major, chronic social problems ensuing from the continued and developing urbanization in what are called ‘edge cities’.
11. Compare and contrast life in the rural community and in the urban community.
12. Discuss three phases of urbanization. How might the future of technology affect the metropolitan and diffuse phase?
13. Describe how the community of the inner city has significantly changed over the last forty years.
14. How has technology affected the decentralization of people, businesses, and industries?
15. What is gentrification? Does it have a positive or negative effect on inner cities?
16. What are the phases of urbanization?
17. What are some of the demographic changes in the inner city?
18. Describe race and ethnicity according to Fellin.
19. Discuss the difference between social class and class awareness.
20. Discuss the six neighborhood types in the Warren & Warren model.
21. Discuss the three neighborhood types in the Litwak model.\
22. Describe a slum and a ghetto.
23. Pretend that you are a school superintendent who needs to “test the
waters” concerning upgrading the school facilities. How would the
Superintendent use the knowledge of neighborhood socialization
patterns to help determine how to proceed.
24. Discuss settlement patterns and make reference to whites and ethnic
minorities and segregation and integration.
25. How many types of voluntary associations may be classified and what
are the characteristics that voluntary associations define as organized
Groups?
26. What are the roles of voluntary associations in the helping network
according to Powell’s information?
27. How does the organization of a voluntary group differ form the
organization of a primary group such as a family?
28. Describe voluntary groups that are related to student achievement.
29. How can voluntary associations build a sense of community of
learning in South Texas where empowerment is difficult to achieve?
Narrative Chapter
Major Points from the book, The Community and the Social Worker, by Phillip Fellin
Defining Communities
Garvin and Tropman state that a community exists “when a group of people form a social unit based on common location, interest, identification, culture, and/or activities (Fellin, p. 3, 1995). Communities are classified as A.) locality-based communities and B.) personal communities. The locality-based communities are “1.) a functional spatial unit meeting sustenance need, 2.) a unit of patterned social interaction, 3.) a symbolic unit of collective identity” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). An example of a locality-based community is a neighborhood community. A personal community is based on “1.) locational, 2.) identificational, and 3.) interest” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). Communities also have the characteristics of common locality, and place, or non-place in an individual’s personal community. A non place community is being a community of identification or interest. An example of a non place community is being a part of the Jewish community.
The four conditions that enhance the functioning of a local community are:
1.) residents are committed to there community,
2.) various community groups have a self-awareness of their values and self-interests
3.) community groups are articulate and can communicate with one another, and
4.) residents identify goals and their implementation.
When people think about a good community, they conjure up an individual picture or image and could be described as a good place to work, raise kids, or retire. Images of a good community include “1.) the opportunity for primary group relationships, 2.) the attachment of citizens to their community, 3.) the absence of serious social problems, 4.) the presence of solid, functional, safe neighborhoods, 5.) the presence of opportunities for education and employment, and 6.) a positive and cultural environment” (mid-term Study Guide, 2000).
In approaching education from the ecological system perspective, educators can view the “population characteristics of the community (size, density, heterogeneity), the physical environment (land use), the social organization or structure of a community, and the technological forces in a community” (Fellin, 1995, p. 11). Ecological systems explain the features of the population, such as social class, racial and ethnic composition. The ecological perspective helps us understand “1.) community changes, 2.) movements of population groups, 3.) Patterns of migrations and immigrations, 4.) succession and segregation,” and “5.) growth dynamics of communities” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). The next step to consider is the interdependencies of people and services to their local and broader environments in the context of community changes due to movements of populations.
The social systems perspective is the relationship of social institutions within the community and the social functions the institution provides. It is important to focus on how the formal organizations (economic, political, educational, social welfare, and health care) function as subsystems within a community. Production/distribution/consumption, socialization, social control, social participation, and mutual support for individuals and for the community are all-important features according to Warren (Fellin, 1995, p. 12). These features of the community are especially important to consider when planning or projecting for future trends and social change.
The barriers to community competence are the values, attitudes, and practices of people toward special populations. The special population groups are ethnic minorities, women, the physically and mentally disabled, gays and lesbians, cultural and religious groups. The values, attitudes, and practices shape how the community responds to these specific groups. Fellin quoted Longres to say that racism could be institutionalized when racism could be built into the norms, traditions, laws, policies and could be found in the subsystems of a community through economic discrimination, inadequate services to minorities, and insensitivity to the needs of minorities. Barriers for ethnic minorities include “discriminatory policies and practices, institutionalized racism” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). For women, communities might need to consider the location of day care, transportation systems, and equal pay structures when considering whether or not there are barriers to working women. Barriers “place women in a disadvantageous position and impose burdens upon them which restrict their full participation in the community” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). Architectural designs, transportation, job training, housing, public accommodations, employment, communication, recreation, services, and equal opportunity must be considered to determine whether there are barriers for the disabled and whether there is compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Gay and lesbian individuals must not denied civil liberties or be excluded from social participation, must not be subjected to violence or stigma, and should have equal employment opportunities. All religious and cultural groups must not suffer discrimination, oppression, or prejudice. Myths, stereotypes, and negative behaviors must not be directed at those members of cultural or religious groups.
In the development of communities it is helpful to understand the phases of urbanization, edge cities, gentrification, and the immigration and heterogeneity of communities. The overlapping phases of urbanization include the city-building phase that occurred from the 1830’s to 1925, the metropolitan phase that began about 1920, and the diffuse stage that began about 1950 to the present. Presently, all three phases exist with the metropolitan phase showing more increased populations around the larger urban cities and a move of industry away from central cities. There was also a migration to suburbs. The diffuse stage is characterized by less dominance in central cities and a furthering broadening of industry and business. It is also characterized by major entertainment centers beyond the center of the city. Examples of these entertainment centers are superdomes, concert parks, national corporation offices, and hotels.
Edge cities were created as the diffuse phase created new cities on the outskirts of central cities. Office and retail space became available in the once called bedroom communities. The Edge City would then begin to have its own identity as a place.
Gentrification occurred as a result of the changing land use in the inner cities. Young professional people began to buy the old dwellings that investors developed into up scale residential use. There has been an increase in this movement but it should not be interpreted as a large movement. A disadvantage of gentrification is a lack of housing options for people who typically lived in rooming housing or single rooms.
Migration and immigration affect communities. Western Europeans immigrated in the mid 1800’s, and southern and eastern Europeans immigrated in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. Other large immigrant groups include Africans, Hispanics from Mexico, Japanese, Chinese, and Indians. Many ethnic populations followed the process of social and spatial concentration, segregation, acculturation, and assimilation.
Stratification in communities occurs based on class, race, and ethnicity. Social class is further stratified by socieconomic class, family, social standing, and lifestyle. Socioeconomic status is measured through the census by occupation, income, and education levels which is used to develop social profiles of communities. In 1955, Skevsky and Bell developed a social area analysis that was based on the three areas of (Fellin, 1995, p. 61):
“1. Social rank (education and occupation)
2. urbanization or family status (type of housing, marital status, children, members of household working)
3. segregation or ethnicity (proportion of minorities in an area compared to the total community population).”
Each area is scored and then ordered to gain a better understanding of communities for assessment of social class levels, as well as occupational, income, and educational levels.
Social class is related to lifestyles and is indicated through “value and location of homes, clothing styles, consumer spending patterns, club memberships, restaurants, bars, lounges, summer and winter homes, travel and vacation styles, type of automobile, cooking and food styles, participation in sports, and choices of reading/magazines/books” (Fellin, 1995, p. 62). The most evident is the value and location of residence.
Neighborhoods serve functions for their residents as illustrated in a framework developed by Warren and Warren in 1977. They identified the functions of a neighborhood as a “sociability arena, an interpersonal influence center, a source of mutual aid, an organizational base, a reference group, and a status area (Fellin, 1995, p. 80). Other models include the Litwak model, the Fellin and Litwak model, and the Figueira-McDonough model. Each model of neighborhood types is described in the Table 1. below.
Figure 1. The Models of Neighborhood Types
Warren and Warren 1977
Focus:
Social identity, social interaction, and linkages to the wider community
Integral neighborhood –
High identity, interaction, and linkages
• High capacity to identify problems and take action
• Easier for higher social classes to create but is also in white-collar suburbs, inner city and blue-collar industrial communities
Parochial neighborhood –
High identity and interaction, low
Linkages
• Strong group identity due to race, class, age, and physical isolation there is a strong commitment to locality and getting things done
• May be limited due to lack of linkages to larger community
Diffuse neighborhoods –
High identity, low interaction and linkages
• Doesn’t act on its high degree of collective capacity
• People think they don’t need the help
• Found in upper-class suburban dwellings and high-rise luxury apartments
Stepping-stone neighborhoods –
Low in identity, high interaction and linkages
Transitory neighborhoods –
Low identity and interaction, high linkages
Litwak 1985
Focus:
Emphasizes two important dimensions of neighborhood primary groups
1.) level of membership change/turnover
2.) capacity to retain primary group cohesion/social integration
Mobile neighborhood –
• high turnover of residents, quickly integrate newcomers, retain neighborhood cohesion
Transitional neighborhood –
• stable membership, not well suited for integrating new residents
Mass neighborhood –
• high mobility of residents, little capacity for integrating new or retaining cohesion
Fellin and Litwak 1968
Focus:
Organizational, value, and change dimensions of neighborhood primary groups
Neighborhood with positive values, organized –
Neighborhood with positive values, unorganized –
Neighborhood with negative values, organized –
Neighborhood with negative values, unorganized –
Figueira – McDonough 1991
Focus:
Uses ecological perspective for typology to understand delinquency rates by the dimensions of population factors and organizational factors
Stepping-stone community –
• nonpoor and mobile, low primary networks, high secondary networks, high external links
Established community –
• nonpoor and stable, high primary and secondary networks, low external links
Disorganized community –
• poor and mobile, low primary and secondary networks, low external links
Parochial community –
• poor and stable, high primary networks, low secondary networks and low external links
A slum and a ghetto are two different terms and cannot be used interchangeably. A ghetto is a “bounded residential are in which a defined racial or ethnic group is forced to live” (Choldan, 1985). A slum is a physical environment that is “deteriorated, run-down and undesirable housing units, evidence of filth, dirt, unsanity conditions,” including “boarded up and unoccupied structures” (Fellin, 1995).
Suburban neighborhoods are classified according to the three dimensions of social interaction, identity, and linkages to the wider community therefore the suburban neighborhood types in Warren and Warren’s model are integral, diffuse, and stepping-stone. Some of the functions of neighborhood primary groups are sociability arena, interpersonal influence center, organizational base, reference group, and status area (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). Older neighborhoods exhibit lower interaction.
Social class neighborhoods are evident due to the status symbols of location, house, and people in varying combinations. The status of suburban neighborhoods changes much more slowly than urban neighborhoods. Until the 1960’s, many African-Americans and Hispanics continued to reside in the same neighborhood regardless of social status. These groups had ties of religion, family, ethnic, and small towns.
Ethnic neighborhoods, also called communities or commonalities, are areas in large cities with a high concentration of a similar minority group. Mixed land use characterizes the neighborhood to include residences, businesses, agencies, and schools. Zones of emergence describe the areas in the central city or suburbs where the middle class minority have moved in large numbers.
Housing segregation is attributed to discrimination and prejudice that the New York Times and others state that is due to race or ethnicity. Segregated housing still exists due to socioeconomic factors and preference. Some housing costs are prohibitive to some and nonwhites have preferred to live in homogeneous neighborhoods. Segregated housing continues to persist.
White flight occurred in dramatically after World War II to bring more white families to the suburbs. There were nonracial “pushes” and “pulls” as well as racial causes to generate this movement. White families had pent up housing needs which the accessibility and size of suburban housing filled. The economy allowed for upward mobility, lower interest loans were available, and there were lower taxes. The segregated neighborhoods in the suburbs were also attractive to the families.
Succession, a series of events that caused the replacement of a neighborhood by a population or land use, is seen as part of the process of change of a neighborhood. The text termed the incoming group as “invaders” and the original group as “established” (Fellin, 1995, p. 105). The succession of the movement of minority groups into white areas should consider “1.) the causes and conditions of the process, 2.) the process of radical change itself, and 3.) the social and economic consequences of the process” (Aldrich in Fellin, 1995, p. 105). Whites view the incoming people negatively and make assumptions according to Aldrich. The assumptions are that single family dwellings will become multiple, household membership will increase, more people will gather at residences, and the business ownership will change (Aldrich in Fellin, 1995). Ultimately, tipping will occur when whites begin moving away.
Hernandez (1985) has explained the settlement of new immigrants as a framework of neighborhood typology. The first is a ghetto or barrio which is described as heterogeneously mixed with a single group dominating. The second is a heterogeneous mix with no predominant group. The next is multi-ethnic, multi-racial with a gentrification of white middle class. Then immigrants might enter or move to an older neighborhood. The last is scattered suburban settlements with lower and upper middle classes.
Voluntary associations in America are viewed as social units with many diverse forms and functions. The associations can be a vehicle for “worship, social support, social participation, political influence, self-help, service, and client organizations” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). The organizations are helping networks involving citizen volunteers as well as formal human service organizations. The four systems are 1.)lay informal service systems, 2.) quasi formal and self-help systems, 3.) professional service organizations, and 4.) inter-organizational relationships. Voluntary associations link individuals with the larger community and help with integration into the primary group of neighborhood. The associations serve an important role in influencing minority groups regarding empowerment, mutual aid, social support, advocacy, and in dealing with relevant issues.
Women are important to volunteer organizations and have comprised the majority of membership due to their interest in connecting with their communities. Women have also gained power through their involvement in self-help groups. Women have joined with others to bring about changes in their communities.
Religious groups can be viewed as voluntary associations and can identify themselves as communities of identification and interest. These associations play important roles in the community’s social welfare systems.
A direct service agency in an agency that meets the social welfare needs of the community residents. Some of the services provided are vocational rehabilitation and counseling. These agencies could be either public or voluntary and provide services to families and children ranging from social welfare policies, child protective services, to parenting education. Health care services, public and private, provide services at hospital, clinics, and mental health centers. Lack of coordination between public and private as well as between physical and mental health subsystems have been the major criticisms of health care.
The role of the federal government has been strong in the area of service and educational. Government programs include the Head Start program, the National School Lunch Program, and programs for children with special needs. Brown vs. Board of Education ruled against segregation because it deprived students of educational opportunity. The role of the school board was clarified and the Buckley amendment ruled that all student records must be kept confidential. Many states were teaching sex education. In Texas, there were several cases of Edgewood vs. Kirby, etc. to equalize funding resources for all school districts. School reform was beginning to be the new focus with a “Nation At Risk” presenting the state of education as the lack of improvement in SAT scores.
Multiculturalism is the study of minority cultures. The study is an emphasis on everyone’s uniqueness but some argue that the American culture is being minimized. The Children of the Rainbow in New York City is an example of cultural diversity as a valuable asset. Critics of this program refer to the family situations particularly gay and lesbian couples with children.
Political economy is the community interdependence with organizations, groups, and individuals engaged in the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. The economic system of local community includes “1.) numerous bureaucratic organizations such as industrial companies and commercial businesses, 2.) offices of professional and private or group practice such as accountants, lawyers, physicians, social workers, psychologists; 3.) small, less formalized businesses, home industries, service operations, and 4.) an underground economy which includes a variety of legal and illegal remunerative activities by individuals or groups” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000).
Equal employment opportunities for employment, pay, and advancement differ in communities. Pay for women is less than men and even lower for Black and Hispanic women. Felice Schwartz (1989) introduced the career track idea so that women could be viewed as individuals with varying needs. One track was a career-primary woman and the other was a career-and-family track. Schwartz has also developed a questionnaire for businesses to assess how they treat women employees. The issues for women in workplace are 1.) support of women in the workplace, 2.) in the home, and 3.) on options of workplace and/or home.
The Americans with Disabililities Act of 1990 applies to the economic, social, vocational, and educational discrimination to individuals with physical or mental disabilities. Businesses with 25 or medical more employees must comply with this act. The employer cannot inquire about such areas as medical history, insurance claims, work absenteeism; must make reasonable accommodation; defines a disabled person as one with physical or mental disability that impairs one ore more life activities; and defines a qualified disabled person as one who can perform the essential functions of the job.
Sexual harrassment is addressed in the Titles VII and IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Discrimination in hiring practices of gays and lesbians may fall under this act. Sexual harassment is a critical area of knowledge for an employer.
Problems in the Community Economics system include opportunities for various occupations, discrimination in hiring, promotion, and unequal benefits. Enterprise zones, established in Florida in 1981, focused on hiring area residents and was a local response to high unemployment, high crime, and welfare dependency. The employer received tax incentives for participating in the program.
The feminization of poverty is apparent when discussing the underclass and the economy. The underclass is composed of individuals who rely on the public welfare system for income and services. The reliance is due to a lack of education and training as well as lack of occupational training for women.
High unemployment and low wage industries such as nursing homes, hospitals, hotels, small businesses, department stores, and retail food stores characterize the economy of the ghetto. The low occupational and residential mobility prevent movement out of the ghetto (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000).
When redrawing district boundaries, it is worthwhile to be aware of the pitfalls of gerrymandering. Gerrymandering is the drawing of voting districts so that white and non-white groups outnumber other groups assuring specific groups majority residential group of representation in local, state, or federal government. Social power is the potential ability to select, change, or attain the goals of the social system. Ethnic minority groups, women, and community power can be assessed by identifying the community leaders according to their position, reputation, or the policy decisions they have made.
Community conflict serves positive functions in a community. Conflict allows a community to establish and maintain identity and boundaries of societies and groups, provides opportunities to vent hostility and express dissent, allows group to assess the power and influence of another group and serves as a balancing mechanism, and brings people together in coalitions.
Religious institutions and organizations serve important functions in communities as instruments of socialization, education, social control, and mutual support. Formally, they facilitate community integration through religious-oriented schools, social agencies, volunteer groups, creation of own volunteer groups, and through the informal relationships of leading mutual aid and social supports among families connected to a religious congregation.
Major Points from book, The Spirit of Community, by Amitai Etzioni
Many writers such as Sinclair Lewis and John O’Hara describe small towns as narrow places “inhabited by petty, mean spirited people” which gave a negative view of the idea of gemeinschaft, the German word for community (Etzioni, 1993, p. 116). Tonnies labeled social relations as either gemeinschaft, which means community or gesellschaft, the German word for society. During the twentieth century there was a transition to gesellschaft even though large cities were portrayed more favorably than they were in reality.
James Q. Wilson, a political analyst, saw the cities as gesellschaft and he thought that the YMCA and other associations were trying to provide a “socially appropriate, morality-sustaining context” (Etzioni, p. 118, 1993). Herbert Gans, a Columbia University sociologist, painted a different picture of cities through his observance of urban villages, or gemeinschaft, in which neighbors were friendly and diverse groups of people lived side by side. Suburbs that share similarities with small communities now characterize America. The author describes this movement as an enhancement to the Communitarian nexus. The Communitarian movement is an environmental movement dedicated to the betterment of our moral, social, and political environment (Study Guide Test #2, 2000, p. 5). It is characterized by a four point agenda including 1.) a Moratorium, a transition period, which puts a tight lid on new rights; 2.) Rights Presume Responsibilities, claiming rights without assuming responsibilities is unethical and illogical; 3.) Responsibilities without rights, we have some duties of moral claims; and 4.) Careful adjustments, outlaws unreasonable searches and seizures (Study Guide Test #2, 2000, p. 5).
The Communitarian recognizes a need for a new social map. In the 50’s, there was a clear set of values for most Americans, discrimination against minorities was commonplace, and was very authoritarian. Challenging voices came out in the 1960’s to embrace new values. Violent, sexual, and commercial messages were heard. The 80’s were the “me-istic” time with self-interest and greed considered to be virtuous. The 90’s had a growing awareness that there were few firmly established moral positions. Marriage was a disposable relationship and the moral values included malingering at work, drug and alcohol abuse, physical force used against another person, and a tendency to violence. There was a call for moral commitment in the early 90’s and a positive response. The opponents dubbed the movement “neopuritanism” (Study Guide Test #2, 2000, p. 7).
The Communitarian nexus is further sustained by the reluctance of Americans to move as frequently breaking ties to friends and to roots. There have also been new, nongeographic communities developing. Examples of these communities are the work-based and professional communities made up of people who work together, interact with each other, grow to care for each other, and also reinforce moral expectations.
Etzioni describes those people who are supporting the gesellschaft and investing themselves into making higher salaries and moving to a higher rank but points out that this is an unsatisfying activity because there is always someone else who makes more money or has a higher ranking position. The author writes that people should instead “combine their self-advancement with investment in their community” and a “we-ness” approach with one or more groups of people (Etzioni, 1993, p. 124). Examples of we-ness are neighborhood crime watches, soup kitchens for the less fortunate, a folk dance group that meets weekly, an Alcoholics Anonymous chapter, and especially centers for senior citizens which provides activities for groups. It is possible to train recruiters and facilitators of we-ness to foster a Communitarian nexus to revive communities.
Etzioni continues to support the importance of gemeinschaft or Communitarian activity and writes that it should not be trivialized. Volunteer efforts are more important than ever to education and to national service. Educators can help to identify ways that the public can help education. Volunteers provide an enormous service, as almost half of the emergency medical technicians are not paid.
Institutions are important to the communities because of the services they provide but play an even more important role in that communities come together around these institutions. Local schools provide a source of identity for the community. Many times loss of community is a social cost when schools consolidate. Churches, synagogues, senior citizen centers, and the local grocery store serve as unifying institutions within the community. Etzioni suggests that Communitarians should consider the moral and social as well as the financial consequences when they are considering the closing of shops or the consolidation of schools.
The movement to community policing is an example of trying to reconstruct a core institution for the purpose of rebuilding communities. Other examples are restoration of housing projects and opening community mental health centers. Community policing allows for the officers to develop relationships and communicate with people as they patrol their beats on foot. Grievances are resolved more directly and the police work is a more integral part of the community.
In order to enhance public safety, Communitarians can support crime watches, citizen patrols, build community bonds, sentence nonviolent offenders to community service, and public humiliating or public shaming by publishing the names of people frequenting prostitutes or requiring convicted drunken drivers to display signs on their cars. Communitarians are also expected to participate in politics and governance as an important way to build community. Schools, hospitals, libraries and other community activities offer ample opportunities for public participation.
The Communitarian family has a commitment to the children who require attention, time, energy, and self. Communitarianism is a movement away from the institutionalization of children into child care centers where bonding with families was not occurring. Etzioni favors two parent families over single parent families and supports the division of educational labor. Parents need to parent more and have to make choices between income and better relationships with their children. Divorce moves fathers away and children are faced with the adjustment to fragile relationships with the revolving boyfriends and girlfriends of parents. Etzioni supports a slow movement to marriage with counseling for young people. During marriage, families should eat together, go to marriage encounters, renew vows, and get counseling when it is needed. Mechanisms have been suggested to slow down family break-ups and divorce such as a waiting period. The benefits of marriage include greater happiness, less depression, stable identity, bonding, and the we-ness of being a couple.
Key Terms and Definitions
Centralization – a clustering of institutions and service in a central location
Communitarianism – a community member with a sense of gemeinschaft and who works to build and maintain the community
Community policing – a local, usually on foot, police who work within the community and build relationships with people in the community
Crowding – a stress producing environment, either psychological or subjective, resulting from a person recognizing that he/she has less space than desired, described by Krupat
Gemeinschaft – the German term for a small, traditional community, a type of social relation described by Ferdinand Tonnies, a German sociologist
Gesellschaft – the German word for society, another type of social relation, which Tonnies used to refer to “people who have rather few bonds, like people in a crowd or a mass society” in which isolation and individuation in the place of communal ties could occur (Etzioni, 1993, p. 116; Fellin, 1995, p. 45).
Minority group – people of color, groups identified by the Equal Rights Act of 1964 as African American, Asian American, Native American, and Hispanic (Fellin, 1995, p. 68)
Nongeographic community – a community made of people who do not live near each other such as a work-based or professional community (Etzioni, 1993)
We-ness – a shared sense of belonging to a group or groups comprised of significant others with whom they have meaningful, stable, and affective relationships (Etzioni, 1993)
Internet Links:
Gemeinschaft and gesellschaft
http://www.imsa.edu/~bernie/gemeingesell.html
http://www.cf.ac.uk/socsi/frameset_students/introsoc/gemein.html
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed376996.html
Concentration and Segregation
http://www.scp.nl/boeken/cahiers/cah123/uk/samenvatting.htm
http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/resseg/def.html
http://education.mit.edu/tep/11124/school.htm
http://www.idra.org/Newslttr/1997/Oct/Albert.htm
http://www.nber.org/reporter/spring98/hoxby_spring98.html
http://www.uncfsu.edu/NCcatalyst/new_page_15.htm
Social Class
http://www.hewett.norfolk.sch.uk/curric/soc/class/class.htm
http://www.trinity.edu/mkearl/strat.html
http://hss.fullerton.edu/sociology/orleans/436.htm
Social Issues and Neighborhoods
http://www.neighborhoodcoalition.org/
References
Anderson, T. & Cohort VIII. (2000). Mid-term study guide, SOCI
6302 Community Development, Kingsville, TX: Texas A & M University.
Anderson, T. & Cohort VIII. (2000). Study guide test #2, SOCI 6302
Community Development, Kingsville, TX: Texas A & M University.
Etzioni, A. (1993). The spirit of community: The reinvention of
american society. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Fellin, P. (1995). The community and the social worker. Itasca, IL:
Peacock.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Innovations in Education
Contributed by: Robert Vela
Sample Question (as per Dr. Kester): What is the process of implementing an innovation? Consider all individuals involved.
The number and dynamics of factors that interact and affect the process of change are to overwhelming to compute in anything resembling a fully determined way. We do know more about the processes of change as a result of the research of the 1970s and 1980s, only to discover that there are no hard-and-fast rules, rather a set of suggestions or implications given the contingencies specific to local situations. The uniqueness of the individual setting is a critical factor. What works in one situation may or may not work in another. This is not to say that there are not guidelines. Research findings on the change process should be used less as instruments of application and more as means of helping practitioners and planners make sense of planning, implementation strategies, and monitoring.
Most researchers now see three broad phases to the change process.
Phase I – variously labeled initiation, mobilization, or adoption consists of the process that leads up to and includes a decision to adopt or proceed with a change. Phase II – implementation or initial use (usually the first two or three years) involves the first experiences of attempting to put an idea or reform into practice. Phase III – called continuation, incorporation, or institutionalization refers to whether the change gets built in as an ongoing part of the system or disappears by way of a decision to discard or through attrition. The concept of outcome provides a more complete overview of the change process.
In simple terms, someone or some group, for whatever reasons, initiates or promotes a certain program or direction of change. The direction of change, which may be more or less defined at the early stages, moves to a phase of attempted use (implementation), which can be more or less effective in that use may or may not be accomplished. Continuation is an extension of the implementation phases in that the new program is sustained beyond the first year or two (or whatever timeframe is chosen). Outcome, depending on the objectives, can refer to several different types of results and can be thought of generally as the degree of school improvement in relation to a given criteria. Results could include, for example, improved student learning and attitudes; new skills, attitudes, or satisfaction on the part of teachers and other school personnel; or improved problem-solving capacity of the school as an organization.
Ideally the best beginnings for the initiation process combines relevance, readiness, and resources. Relevance includes the interaction of need, clarity of the innovation (and practitioner’s understanding of it), and utility, or what it really has to offer teachers and students. Surprisingly, simple changes are the ones school systems are least likely to adopt and implement successfully, largely because they are not perceived to be worth the effort. By contrast, the greatest success is likely to occur when the size of the change is large enough to require noticeable, sustained effort, but not so massive that typical users find it necessary to adopt a coping strategy that seriously distorts the change. Relevance and importance do matter.
Readiness involves the school’s practical and conceptual capacity to initiate, develop, or adopt a given innovation – the school’s capacity to use reform. Readiness may be approached in terms of individual and organization factors. For individuals: Does it address a perceived need? Is it a reasonable change? Do they posses the requisite knowledge and skills? Do they have the time? For organizations: Is the change compatible with the culture of the school? Are facilities, equipment, material, and supplies available? Are there other crises or other change efforts in progress? The greater the number of no’s, the more reason to take another look at readiness.
Resources concern the accumulation of and provision of support as a part of the change process. Just because it is a good and pressing idea, doesn’t mean that the resources are available to carry it out. People often underestimate the resources needed to go forward with a change. While resources are obviously critical during implementation, it is at the initiation phase that the issue must first be considered and provided for.
The key factors in the implementation process are organized into three main categories relating to the characteristics of the innovation or change project, local characteristics, and external factors. The characteristics of change are need, clarity, complexity, and quality/practicality. Need refers to whether or not change is required. Many innovations are attempted without a careful examination of whether or not they address what are perceived to be priority needs. Teachers, for example, frequently do not see the need for an advocated change. Several large-scale studies in the United States confirm the importance of relating need to decisions about innovations or change directions. Other studies have discovered that implementation if more effective when it is relatively focused or specific needs are identified. Complex or multifaceted reforms can also be focused, but they require a great deal of effort to clarify the nature of the needs being addressed. It is incumbent that a needs assessment be performed to determine with a change process is warranted.
Clarity (about goals and means) is a perennial problem in the change process. Even when there is agreement that some kind of change is needed, as when teachers want to improve some area of the curriculum or improve the school as a whole, the adopted change may not be at all clear about what teachers should do differently. The majority of teachers are unable to identify the essential features of the innovation they are using. Problems related to clarity have been found in virtually every study of significant change. Studies have shown that the more complex the reform, the greater the problem of clarity. Lack of clarity – diffuse goals and unspecified means of implementation – represents a major problem at the implementation stage; teachers and others find that change is simply not very clear as to what it means in practice.
Complexity refers to the difficulty and extent of change required of the individuals responsible for implementation. The actual amount depends on the starting point of any given individual or group, but the main idea is that any change can be examined with regard to difficulty, skill required, and extent of alterations in beliefs, teaching strategies, and use of materials. Many changes such as open education, systematic direct instruction, inquiry-oriented social studies, special education, effective schools, parent involvement, and restructuring experiments requires a sophisticated array of activities, structures, diagnosis, teaching strategies, and philosophical understanding if effective implementation is to be achieved.
The last factor associated directly with the nature of change concerns the quality and practicality of the innovation – whether it is a new curriculum, a new policy, a restructured school or whatever. The history of the quality of attempted changes relative to the other three variables (need, clarity, complexity) is revealing. To say that the importance of the quality of the change is self-evident is to underestimate how initiation decisions are made. Inadequate quality and even the simple unavailability of materials and other resources can result when adoption decisions are made on grounds of political necessity, or even on the grounds of perceived need without time for development. When adoption is more important the implementation, decisions are frequently made without the follow-up or preparation time necessary to generate adequate materials. Ambitious projects are nearly always politically driven. Practical changes are those that address salient needs that fit well with the teachers’ situation, that are focused, and that include concrete how-to-do-it possibilities. Practical does not necessarily mean easy, but it does mean the presence of next steps. Changes that are practical, even though of good quality, may be trivial or offensive, while changes that are complex may not be practically worked out.
Local factors that play a major role in the implementation phase of the change process consist of district, community, principal, and teacher. The importance of the district’s history of innovation attempts can be stated in the form of a proposition: The more the teachers and others have had negative experiences with previous implementation attempts in the district or elsewhere, the more cynical or apathetic they will be about the next change presented regardless of the merit of the new idea or program. Districts can develop an incapacity for change as well as a capacity for it. Individual teachers and single schools can bring about change without the support of central administrators, but district-wide change will not happen. Although it has always been said that the superintendent and the principal are critical to educational change, it is only recently that we are beginning to understand more specifically what that means in practice. Research shows that the support of central administrators is critical for change in district practice.
It is very difficult to generalize about the role of communities and school boards regarding implementation. Research shows that community support of the school was correlated positively with innovativeness. There is also evidence that rural school districts not only have less access to innovations but also are often too distant geographically from needed sources of assistance during implementation.
All major research on innovation and school effectiveness shows that the principal strongly influences the likelihood of change, but it also indicates that most principals do not play instructional or change leadership roles. Principals’ actions serve to legitimate whether a change is to be taken seriously (and not all changes are) and to support teachers both psychologically and with resources.
Both individual teacher characteristics and collective play roles in determining implementation. The psychological state of a teacher can be more or less predisposed toward considering and acting on improvements. Some teachers, depending on their personality and influenced by their previous experiences and stage of career, are more self-actualized and have a greater sense of efficacy, which leads them to take action and persist in the effort required to bring about successful implementation in the change process.
External factors that influence the implementation phase in the change process are state departments of education and federal agencies. State and national priorities for education are set according to the political forces, and lobbying of interest groups, government bureaucracies, and elected representatives. Legislation, new policies, and new program initiatives arise from public concerns that the education system is not doing an adequate job of teaching basics, developing career relevant skills for the economic system, producing effective citizens, meeting the needs of at-risk children – recent immigrants or handicapped children or cultural minorities – and so on. These sources of reform put pressure on local districts (sometimes to the point of force) and also provide various incentives for changing in the desired direction. Whether or not implementation occurs will depend on the congruence between the reforms and local needs, and how the changes are introduced and followed through. The multiplicity of post-adoption decisions after education legislation or new policies involves several layers of agencies. That success is achieved in many instances is a reflection that some people “out there” know what they are doing. Sharing and developing this know-how should be a major goal of those interested in educational change.
The problem of continuation is endemic to all innovations irrespective of whether they arise from external initiative or are internally developed. Continuation of innovations depends on whether or not the change gets embedded or built into the structure (through policy, budget, timetable, etc.), has (by the time of the continuation phase) generated a critical mass of administrators and teachers who are skilled in and committed to the change, and has established procedures for continuing assistance, especially relative to supporting new teachers and administrators.
Reform is badly needed, yet people’s experience with change is overwhelmingly negative – imposition is the norm, costs outweigh the benefits, the few successes are short-lived. The only way out of this dilemma is for individuals to take responsibility for empowering themselves and others through becoming experts in the change process. New values are needed for leadership in tomorrow’s schools as compared to the present:
Value 1: Openness to Participation
Today’s Value: Our organization values employees listening to the organization’s leaders and doing what the leaders tell them to do.
Tomorrow’s Value: Our organization values employees actively participating in any discussion or decision affecting them
Value 2: Openness to Diversity
Today’s Value: Our organization values employees falling in line with the overall organizational direction.
Tomorrow’s Value: Our organization values diversity in perspectives leading to a deeper understanding of organizational reality and an enriched knowledge base for decision making.
Value 3: Openness to Conflict
Today’s Value: Our organization values employees communicating a climate of group harmony and happiness.
Tomorrow’s Value: Our organization values employees resolving conflict in a healthy way that leads to stronger solutions for complex issues.
Value 4: Openness to Reflection
Today’s Value: Our organization values employees conveying a climate of decisiveness. Firm decisions are made and implemented without looking back.
Tomorrow’s Value: Our organization values employees reflecting on their own and others’ thinking in order to achieve better organizational decisions.
Value 5: Openness to Mistakes
Today’s Value: Our organization values employees concentrating on making no mistakes and working as efficiently as possible.
Tomorrow’s Value: Our organization values employees acknowledging mistakes and learning from them.
Internet Links
The Learning Revolution http://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC27/TOC27.htm
The Education & Research Network http://www.aera.net/
The Center for Education Reform http://www.edreform.com/
School Choices http://www.schoolchoices.org/
Effective Education http://klimag.tripod.ca/ed.html
Public Education Network http://www.publiceducation.org/
Education Reform http://www.teach-nology.com/
General Education Reform http://www.enc.org/professional/research/journal/generalreform/
The Teacher’s Guide – Educational Reform http://www.theteachersguide.com/Educationreform.htm
The Progress of Education Reform http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/ProgressofReform.asp
Key Terms and Definitions
1. Implementation: or initial use (usually the first two or three years) involves the first experiences of attempting to put an idea or reform into practice.
2. Initiation: mobilization, or adoption consists of the process that leads up to and includes a decision to adopt or proceed with a change.
3. Continuation: incorporation, or institutionalization refers to whether the change gets built in as an ongoing part of the system or disappears by way of a decision to discard or through attrition.
4. Relevance: includes the interaction of need, clarity of the innovation (and practitioner’s understanding of it), and utility, or what it really has to offer teachers and students.
5. Readiness: involves the school’s practical and conceptual capacity to initiate, develop, or adopt a given innovation – the school’s capacity to use reform.
6. Resources: concern the accumulation of and provision of support as a part of the change process.
7. Need: refers to whether or not change is required.
8. Clarity: (about goals and means) is a perennial problem in the change process. Understanding every detail of the goals and means.
9. Complexity: refers to the difficulty and extent of change required of the individuals responsible for implementation.
10. Local factors: district, community, principal, and teacher.
11. External factors: state departments of education and federal agencies.
12. Continuation: whether or not the change gets embedded or built into the structure (through policy, budget, timetable, etc.), has (by the time of the continuation phase) generated a critical mass of administrators and teachers who are skilled in and committed to the change, and has established procedures for continuing assistance, especially relative to supporting new teachers and administrators.
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Organizational Theory in Education
Coontributed by Sharon Parks Brower
Potential Questions
Question 1: Different theories have been used to describe how school and school systems are organized and managed. These organizational theories include bureaucratic, scientific management, human relations, and the open systems approach. Compare and contrast two of these theories in the following areas: organizational structure, basic philosophic perspective of employees, duties and authority of administrators, and effective leadership styles. Justify why one approach might be more effective for an educational entity than the other.
Question 2: Education is a state rather than a federal responsibility. Briefly compare and contrast the responsibilities and educational activities that are associated with state and local level educational entities. Describe how three values, equality, efficiency, and liberty have impacted the establishment and implementation of educational policies at all levels (federal, state, and local).
Organizational Theory in Education
Three theories have influenced school organization and management: (1) classical (bureaucratic & scientific management), (2) human relation, and (3) open systems.
Classical Theory of Organization
Bureaucratic Organizational Model - Max Weber
This formal model includes (1) a hierarchical arrangement with separation of authority, (2) task specialization among employees (division of labor), (3) hiring of professional personnel based on technical knowledge, (4) separation of personal & organizational property and, (5) implicit rules and regulations that govern official decisions and actions. The intent is to maximize rational decision-making and facilitate increased efficiency. It is based on rational-legal authority rather than power and persuasion. Rational legal authority is a belief that laws can be enacted and changed by formally correct procedures. This organizational model has drawn the following criticisms: (1) hierarchical authority can perpetuate rigidity and adherence to rules, (2) the impersonal focus can result in low morale and alienation, (3) division of labor can stifle initiative and, (4) informal relationships and individual needs are ignored.
Scientific Management - Frederick W. Taylor
This perspective focuses on increasing efficiency and maximizing human productivity by identifying the "best" way to do a job. Scientific analysis and time and motion studies were used to identify and help eliminate muscular and physiological activities that lead to worker fatigue. In an effort to optimize work performance, pay was linked to output. This theory has been criticized because it embodies a mechanistic view of workers as extensions of machines.
Human Relations Approach
The focus in this organizational theory is on the social and affective needs of employees and emphasizes the importance of feelings, attitudes and social climate of organizations. Although the basic organizational structure may resemble a bureaucratic model, informal interactions that exist outside bureaucratic norms or formal dimensions of an organization are identified. Employees whose social and psychological needs have been fulfilled are motivated to work more productively. The impact of human relations on employee productivity has been demonstrated in two studies. The results are known as the Hawthorne Effect. The first experiment investigated the effect of increased light on productivity. The results showed that increased productivity was due to subjects' responses to attention and novelty of the experiment and not to an increase or decrease in light. The second experiment (bank-wiring room), investigated the relationship between increased financial incentives and productivity. Results showed that workers establish informal standards that define a "satisfactory" day's work. Production greater or less than standard was unacceptable to the group. These two experiments showed that (1) group norms are equal to or greater than managerial or administrative norms in importance in determining a productivity level, (2) noneconomic rewards can increase productivity, and (3) group satisfaction and commitment are enhanced through participatory decision making.
The Hawthorne studies also showed that leadership style has an effect on group performance. A "democratic" style was found to be more effective for group performance than either a "laissez-faire" or "authoritarian" style. Leaders who give equal attention to initiating structure (task performance) and consideration (friendship, trust, respect, warmth, and concern) tend to be more effective as measured by worker satisfaction and performance. Within groups, there exists both formal and informal leaders. Formal appointed leaders are concerned with task performance while informal leaders emerge for the group and attend to the group's social and psychological needs.
Systems Approach
Systems can be viewed from three different perspectives: biological (living organisms), mechanical (automobiles), and social (organizations). Within each of these perspectives, there are two basic system types: closed and open. Closed systems, like the bureaucratic and human relations models, have impenetrable boundaries and derive few inputs from environment. Although thought to be self-sufficient, these systems can experience entropy, a movement to disorder, lack of resource transformation, and eventually death. In contrast, open systems have permeable boundaries exchanging resources with the environment. Homeostasis exists when the system is stable and there is a balance or equilibrium between environmental resources and the system. Disequilibrium results when the system is unable to use resources as they are received from the environment or when its subsystems are out of balance. One criticism of the systems approach is that it fails to adequately account for change that results from interactions between people.
Open Systems Approach
The open systems approach to organizational theory emerged in the 1960s. Organizations were viewed as open systems that interact with the environments in which they exist. The relationship of organizational parts and the link between the organization and its larger environment was stressed. The input-throughput-output model was used to describe this approach. Organizations maintain themselves by processing inputs from their environment and converting them into outputs.
Schools as a Selective Linkage System
The term, selective linkage system, is used to describe the organizational structure of contemporary schools. In some respects, they resemble a closed system and reflect many of the components of Weber's Hierarchical Organizational Structure. They utilize a (1) hierarchical structure, (2) a division of labor based on technical competence and specialization, and (3) written rules and regulations (policies). On the other hand, they are open systems with both tight and loose controls. Contemporary schools interact socially and politically with community in which they exist through the PTA, school advisory councils and a myriad of special interest groups. Interaction with the community is important in determining school goals and generating approval and support for programs.
Although the organizational structure may show a hierarchical format, there are loose controls between authority levels. The superintendent has authority over staff but must operate within the parameters of board policy and contractual arrangements. Higher authority levels, such as principals and district level administrators, do not exercise complete control over those at lower levels. Teachers are still in control within their classrooms, and site-based management has given more authority to lower organizational levels.
School organizations still command tight control over several areas. These include requirements for teachers, promotion and graduation policies, curriculum, and student placement.
Informal Dimensions of Organizational Structure
Groups formed by teachers have been shown to be a powerful force in school organizations. Administrators who identify informal group leaders and establish close working relationships with them are substantially advantaged in accomplishing organizational goals. Group norms have been shown to be an important determinant of group behavior. Informal groups of teachers tend to reform after the summer break with little change and are usually dominated by older and more experienced teachers.
Leadership and Types of Authority
Leaders attempt to influence others through personal and positional powers such as authority. There are several types of authority that leaders employ: traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal. In the purest form, traditional authority is aligned with patriarchal authority. Charismatic authority is based on personal devotion to the leader. It is thought to be an unstable type of authority because it is linked to one specific person. Rational-legal authority is based on the supremacy of the law and the position that formally established social norms should direct a person's actions in the rational pursuit of specified goals. This type of authority is closely linked to Weber's bureaucracy model.
Types of Educational Organizations
Educational organizations can be classified into three types: nonprofessional, professional, and semiprofessional organizations. Bureaucrats (administrators) and professionals (teachers) assume different roles in these organizations. In nonprofessional organization, the goal is to make a profit. Administrative activities are coordinated so that profits can be maximized and final authority resides in line officers (administrators) who constitute the administrative chain of command. In these organizations, professionals (teachers) are more likely to occupy specialized or staff advisory positions outside the line of authority. The goal of professional organizations, such as those associated with universities, research organizations, and hospitals, is to produce, apply, preserve, or communicate knowledge. Generally, 50% or more of the staff are professionals who have primary control over the major goal activities with administrators providing support. Final authority resides with the professionals. School and social work agencies are classified as semiprofessional organizations. They are similar to professional organizations but differ in the areas of professional employee status and function. Less time is spent on training, and there is a focus on communication of knowledge.
In educational organizations conflicts may arise between bureaucrats (administrators) and professionals (teachers) in the area of decision making. Classic bureaucrats (administrators) make decisions in the interest of the organization, while idealized professionals (teachers) want decisions made in the best interests of the students or norms of the profession.
Public School Systems
The 10th Amendment gave states control of activities that are not specifically assigned to the federal government. This resulted in the states being responsible for education. Except for Hawaii, all U.S. public educational systems are state legislated and supported but locally operated. Local school districts are classified as quasi-corporations: a political division of the state to facilitate the administration of government.
This century has seen an increase in the power of local districts. There has been a movement toward consolidation of school districts, hiring of professional school managers, increased power of the superintendent, and an interest in scientific management. There continues to be an increasing chasm between mainstream partisan political activity and school governance. School boards have secured the right as a separate taxing authority.
The rise in local power has contributed to a decrease in the authority of the State Board of Education. The general areas of responsibility for state departments include finance (administration of federal and state monies), teacher certification, curriculum (textbooks and standards), testing, data collection and distribution, administration of Federal program, facilities and transportation, and nonpublic schools.
Local school district adopt policies and practices to govern the operation of the school system under their control. The policies and practices that are adopted are a result of a dynamic equilibrium between three values - equality, efficiency, and liberty.
Equality means the equal access to educational services for all. Several landmark cases have greatly influenced the organization and functioning of educational systems in the United States. The most influential case was the 1954 Supreme Court Case, Brown vs. Board of Education, which disallowed racially segregated schools. The "equal protection clause" of the 14th Amendment provided equal access to educational opportunities for all handicapped students. Federal funding is provided through the Education for all Handicapped Children Act (1975). Bilingual students were guaranteed effective instruction and equal access to education services as a result of a landmark case; Lau vs. Nichols.
Equality also means equal distribution of financial resources. This was addressed through the enactment of several programs and the passage of several federal acts. The Elementary & Secondary Education Act (ESEA), President Johnson's War on Poverty (1960's), and Compensatory Education which focused on low income families were programs that addressed financial resource allocation to elementary and secondary schools. The needs of post secondary students were addressed through several financial aid programs: (1) Serviceman's Readjustment Act (based on years of service), (2) Guaranteed Student Loan Program (GSLP) which subsidized lending organizations), and (3) Basic Education Opportunity Grants (BEOG) which were based on financial need.
Unequal tax bases and disparate expenditures result in an unequal distribution of resources among school districts. A variety of state level finance reforms during the 1970’s and 1980’s have attempted to equalize these discrepancies. A landmark case, Rodriguez v. San Antonio, found that unequal systems are not in violation of the U.S. constitution.
For employees, equality means equal access to decision making. Programs such as collective bargaining have increased employee participation in decision making. The 1980's saw an increase in teacher unionization (NEA, AFT).
The second value, efficiency, is concerned with the conserve of resources so that "conserved" monies can be used for other endeavors such as expanding school choice. By increasing efficiency, output is maximized and options are expanded. During the 1970's state spending limits were implemented. In a landmark case, Serrano v. Priest, the California legislature imposed a spending ceiling on school districts.
To increase efficiency and contain or reduce costs, school district adopted scientific management principles and patterned schools after businesses. A variety of management strategies (technocracy) became popular as a way to increase student performance while lowering costs and increasing accountability. These included President Johnson's Program Performance Budgeting System (PPBS), Zero Based Budgeting (ZBB), Program Evaluation & Review Techniques (PERT), Management by Objectives (MBO), and Competency Based Teacher Education (CBTE). Comprehensive testing programs were implemented with the purpose of using public scrutiny of test results to make teachers work harder. Developed in 1964, the National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) testing program compares student achievement between states.
The third value, liberty, refers to the freedom to choose among alternatives. Reforms focused on helping public schools increase diversity, be more responsive to their clients, and expand private offerings. A parent’s right to select a private or a public school for their child was guaranteed by a 1925 U.S. Supreme Court Case; Pierce v. Society of Sisters. Tuition tax credits for both public and private school payments were found to be constitutional in a 1983 Supreme Court Case; Mueller vs. Allen. The 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act made federal funds available for nonpublic schools.
Liberty also involves increasing citizen participation and control of education. This is achieved through the development of alternative schools, administrative decentralization, school site management, and the formation of Parent Advisory Councils which are required when receiving federal programs and money such as ESEA, Title 1, and ESAA.
Structure of Organizations and Leadership
Because organizations are composed of groups and groups have leaders, the topics of group dynamics and leadership are intertwined with organizational theory. Blanchard defines leaderships as the "process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group in efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation.
Situational Leadership
Depending upon the situation, an effective leader must be able to select and implement the style that will be most effective. This is known as situational leadership and involves diagnosing which style to use, adapting the style to meet the demands of the situation and communicating with those involved. Situational leadership styles can be divided into four techniques: S1 (telling), S2 (selling), S3 (participation), and S4 (delegating). S1 (telling) and S4 (delegating) are effective at crisis interventions. S1 (telling) and S3 (participation) tend to see members of the organization as either "good people" or "bad people". S2 (selling) and S3 (participation) work well with average groups.
Situational leaders are flexible and can adapt to the needs and readiness of the group. For employee groups at the R1 or low level of readiness, the S1 or telling style is preferred. For R2 (low to moderate readiness) groups, selling (S2) should be used. For R3 (moderate to high readiness) groups, a participatory style (S3) of leaderships works the best. For groups at a high level of readiness (R4), a delegating style (S4) should be implemented.
Transformational Leadership
Organizations are not static, they go through change. Effective leadership is particularly difficult when organizations are going through transformational changes. Transformation is caused by external rather than internal forces and involves substantial and discontinuous change to the shape, structure, and nature of the organization. It is caused by external, rather than internal forces. It is a deep, pervasive change that requires significantly different actions by the members. Studies of successful and unsuccessful organizational transformations have led to the identification of the particular leadership style that can effectively manage transformational change. This type of leadership, transformational, is also referred to as visionary, strategic or charismatic leadership. These leaders have (1) personal commitment to the transformation, (2) firmly and indisputably communicate the impossibility of maintaining the status quo, (3) communicate a clear and enthusiastic vision of what the organization could become, (4) identify and secure the support of key players and power holders, (5) acknowledge and effectively deal with resistance, (6) design and put into action an organization that can implement the vision, and (7) regularly communicate progress, setbacks, and achievements to all stakeholders.
The leader must assess the organization's readiness for change. Blanchard identifies appropriate transformational leadership strategies for each level of organizational readiness. In an OR-1 organization that is fixated, fragmented, and resistant, the leader should use an enforcing strategy (S1) such as coercive power. An OR-2 organization is inept but co-operative and concerned. The leader should use referent and reward power along with enabling strategies (S2). An OR-3 organization is perceptive but divided and ambivalent. Enlisting strategies (S3) and referent and reward power should in used. In an OR-4 organization that is versatile, integrated, and committed, an endorsing strategy (S4) and information power should be used.
Definition of Terms
Authority - legitimate power. Based on perception about the obligations and responsibilities associated with particular positions in an organization.
Bureaucracy - administration of a "government" chiefly through bureaus and departments staffed with nonelected officials.
Equality - equal access to educational services and opportunities
Hierarchical Authority Structure - each higher office has control and supervision of a lower office. Structure assumes the shape of a pyramid.
Human Relations - attention to the social and psychological needs of workers.
Leadership - the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group in efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation.
Leadership style - behavior pattern that a person exhibits when attempting to influence the activities of others.
Liberty - a public value. Freedom to choose from among alternatives
Organizational Theory - fundamental conceptualization of organizational structure and operational arrangements of schools i.e., classical, human relations, and open systems.
Rational-legal authority - assumes existence of a formally established body of social norms designated to organize conduct for rational pursuit of specified goals.
Scientific management - utilizing time and motion studies to enhance worker productivity (Frederick Taylor)
Situational Leadership- selecting and implementing the most effective leadership style based on specific characteristics of the situation, group, and problem.
System - a group of interacting elements forming a complex whole.
Technocracy - theoretical system of government and management based on principles devised and administered by scientists and professional technicians.
Transformation - a vital organizational change caused by factors external to the organization that involves substantial and discontinuous change to the organization's shape, structure, and nature.
Related Web Sites
Equality and Education: School Choice: http//www.equaleducation.com/School_Choice/
Hawthorne Studies
http//www.analytictech.com/mb021/taylor.htm/Hawthorne.html
Leadership
http//www.analytictech.com/mb021/taylor.htm/leadersh.htm
McGregor: Principles of Management:
http//sundial.net/˜russe/RussRP.htm
Open Systems Theory:
http//www.kwandong.ac.kr/˜choich/open_system.html
Organizational Theory: Center for Organizational Theory
http//garnet.berkeley.edu/˜iir/cot/cot.html
Organizational Theory and Behavior
http//www.utoledo.edu/˜DDavis/prinorg.htm
Situational Leadership:
http//www.triangle.org/leadership/sitlead.html
Situational Leadership: Overview (28 slides)
http//sun.vmi.edu/hall/as300/as303/SituationalLeadership/sld001.htm
Taylor's Scientific Management
http//www.analytictech.com/mb021/taylor.htm
Technocracy: http//encarta.msn.com/index/conciseindex/56/056DC000.htm?z=1&pg=2&br=1
Transformational Leadership: ERIC Digest, Number 72
http//www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed347636.html
Transformational Leadership: A Prescription for Contemporary Organizations
http//www.cnu.edu/hrracj/bobpaper.html
Transformational Leadership: Ethics, Character, and Authentic Transformational Leadership
http//cls.binghamton.edu/BassSteid.html
Weber and Bureaucracy
http//www.analytictech.com/mb021/taylor.htm
Weber, Max
http//www.utoledo.edu/˜ddavis/weber.htm
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis Helps Doctoral Students and Faculty Members Publish
NEW YORK TIMES – Press Release
In 2007 and 2008, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, a professor teaching in the PhD Program in Educational Leadership at PVAMU/Member of the Texas A&M University System mentored doctoral students to publish over 120 national refereed, peer-reviewed articles in professional journals; he helped faculty members publish over 90 articles.
During this time, Dr. Kritsonis had a book published by members of the Oxford Round Table in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England. He was also invited to write a history and philosophy of education for the ABC-CIO Encyclopedia of World History.
Dr. Kritsonis published two articles in the Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership and Administration published by SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, California.
In summary, Dr. Kritsonis helped doctoral and faculty members in the PhD Program in Educational Leadership at PV publish over 200 national refereed articles in professional periodicals. Over 70 of these articles are indexed in the national data base system ERIC (Education Resources Information Center).
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Editor-in-Chief
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
www.nationalforum.com
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
Partial Listing of Affiliated Universities, Colleges, and Schools
A.E. Phillips Laboratory School, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA
Albuquerque Public Schools, Albuquerque, NM
Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL
Anchorage School District, Anchorage, AK
American Association of University Professors, Washington, DC
Appalachian State University, Boone, NC
Atlanta Public Schools, Atlanta, GA
Azusa Pacific University, Azusa, CA
Ball State University, Muncie, IN
Baltimore County Public Schools, Baltimore, MD
Barry University, Miami Shores, FL
Ben Gurion University-Negev, Birmingham, AL
Biblioteksjanst Subscriptions, Lund, Sweden
Birmingham City Schools, Birmingham, AL
Blackwell’s Information Services, Oxford, England
Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA
Boston School District, Boston, MA
Boston SPA, Wetherby, Great Britain
Bowie State University, Bowie, MD
Bradley University, Peoria, IL
Brandon University, Brandon, Manitoba, Canada
Brigham Young University, Provo, UT
Brooks Administrative Center, Prince Frederic, MD
Broward Community College, Fort Lauderdale, FL
Buffalo City School District, Buffalo, NY
Buffalo State College, Buffalo, NY
Caddo Parish School Board, Shreveport, LA
California State University, Dominguez Hills, CA
California State University, Fresno, CA
California State University, Fullerton, CA
California State University, Los Angeles, CA
California State University, San Marcos
Canisius College, Buffalo, NY
Carson Newman College, Jefferson, City, TN
Central Missouri State University, Warrensburg, MO
Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington
Chestnut Hill College, Philadelphia, PA
Chicago Public Schools, Chicago, IL
City University, Bellevue, WA
Clark County School District, Las Vegas, NV
Clemson University, Clemson, SC
College of Modern Languages, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
Columbia University, New York, NY
Columbus City School District, Columbus, OH
Dallas Independent School District, Dallas, TX
Dawson U.K., LTD, Kent, England
Dayton Public Schools, Dayton, OH
Denver Publish Schools, Denver, CO
Detroit Public Schools, Detroit, MI
District of Columbia Public Schools, Washington, DC
Devine Information Services, Westwood, MA
Drake University, Des Moines, IA
East Baton Rouge Parish School Board, Baton Rouge, LA
East Carolina University, Greenville, NC
Eastern Washington University, Cheney, WA
EBSCO Industries, Birmingham, AL
Emporia State University, Emporia, KS
ERIC Clearinghouses
FAXON, Westwood, MA
Fayetteville State University, Fayetteville, NC
Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL
Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL
Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
Forth Worth Independent School District, Fort Worth, TX
Fresno Unified School District, Fresno, CA
Furman University, Greenville, SC
George Washington University, Washington DC
Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA
Goodlett Elementary School, Memphis, TN
Gulf Coast State University, Ft. Myers, FL
Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, Germany
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA
Hawaii Department of Education, Honolulu, HI
Henderson State University, Arkadelphia, AR
Houston Independent School District, Houston, TX
Illinois State University, Normal, IL
Iowa State University, Ames, IA
International Resource & Development Center, Richmond, VA
John Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
Karger AG, Schweiz, Switzerland
Kean University, Union, NJ
Long Beach Unified School District, Long Beach, CA
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
Los Angeles County Office of Education, Los Angeles, CA
Los Angeles Unified School District, Los Angeles, CA
Loyola University, Chicago, IL
Loyola University, New Orleans, LA
Marshall University, South Charles, WV
Miami-Dade County Public Schools, Miami, FL
Memphis City School District, Memphis, TN
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
Midwest Library Services, Bridgeton, MO
Milwaukee Public Schools, Milwaukee, WI
Minneapolis Public Schools, Minneapolis, MN
Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS
Mobile County Public School System, Mobile, AL
Morris MacDonald School, Manitoba, Canada
New Orleans Public Schools, New Orleans, LA
New York City Department of Education, New York, NY
Niagara University, Niagara Falls, New York
Nicholls State University, Thibodaux, LA
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND
North Mississippi Regional Center, Oxford, MS
Ohio University, Athens, OH
Oklahoma City Public Schools, Oklahoma City, OK
Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
Oakland Unified School District, Oakland, CA
Omaha Public Schools, Pittsburgh, PA
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR
Oriel College, University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Portland State University, Portland, OR
Portland School District, Portland, OR
Postfach, Schweiz, Switzerland
Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, TX
Providence College, Providence, RI
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
Readmore Academic Services, Inc., Turnersville, NJ
Rhode Island College, Providence, RI
Richmond City School District, Richmond, VA
Roosevelt University, Chicago, IL
Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ
San Antonio Independent School District, San Antonio, TX
San Diego State University, San Diego, CA
San Diego City Unified School District, San Diego, CA
San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA
San Francisco United School District, San Francisco, CA
Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, WA
Seattle Public Schools, Seattle, WA
Seattle University, Seattle, WA
SKANFO
South Carolina State College, Orangeburg, SC
Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA
Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL
Southern University, Baton Rouge, LA
Southwest Missouri State University, Springfield, MO
Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA
Sul Ross State University/Rio Grande College, Del Rio, TX
Sul Ross State University/Rio Grande College, Eagle Pass, TX
Sul Ross State University/Rio Grande College, Uvalde, TX
SUNY, New York, NY
Sweets Blackwell, Inc., The Netherlands
Sweets Blackwell, Inc., Runnemeda, NJ
Sweets Blackwell, Inc., Exton, PA
Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York
Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX
The Truman Pierce Institute, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
The University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
Toledo-Lucas County Public Library, Toledo, OH
Troy University, Troy, AL
Tufts University, Boston, MA
Tucson Unified School District, Tucson, AZ
University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR
University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH
University of Colorado at Denver, Denver, CO
University of Dayton, Dayton, OH
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
University of Georgia, Athens, GA
University of Idaho, Moscow, ID
University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI
University of Houston, Houston, TX
University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA
University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA
University of Louisiana at Monroe, Monroe, LA
University of Louisville, Louisville, KY
University of Lowell, Lowell, MA
University of Maine, Orono, ME
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA
University of Memphis, Memphis, TN
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS
University of Missouri, Columbia, MO
University of Missouri at St. Louis, St. Louis, MO
University of Montana, Missoula, MT
University of Nebraska at Lincoln
University of Nebraska at Omaha
University of Nevada at Las Vegas, Nevada
University of Nevada at Reno, NV
University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, NC
University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND
University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL
University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO
University of Notre Dame, South Bend, IN
University of Oregon, Eugene, OR
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
University of San Diego, San Diego, CA
University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
University of Scranton, Scranton, PA
University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL
University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC
University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD
University of Southern Maine, Gorham, ME
University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN
University of Texas, Arlington, TX
University of Texas, Austin, TX
University of Texas of the Permian Basin, Odessa, TX
University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT
University of the Virgin Islands, St. Thomas, VI
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
University of Washington, Seattle, WA
University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY
Valdosta State University, Valdosta, GA
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN
Washington State University, Pullman, WA
Wayne State University, Detroit, MI
Weber State University, Ogden, UT
Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL
West Texas A&M University, Canyon, TX
West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV
Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, NC
Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY
Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA
Wichita School District, Wichita, KS
Winona State University, Winona, MN
Winston-Salem State University, Winston-Salem, NC
Xavier University, New Orleans, LA
York University, Ontario, Canada
Youngstown State University, Youngstown, OH
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis Inducted into the William H. Parker Leadership Academy Hall of Honor (HBCU)
Remarks by Angela Stevens McNeil
July 26th 2008
Good Morning. My name is Angela Stevens McNeil and I have the privilege of introducing the next Hall of Honor Inductee, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis. Dr. Kritsonis was chosen because of his dedication to the educational advancement of Prairie View A&M University students. He earned a Bachelor’s degree in 1969 from Central Washington University in Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his Master’s in Education from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa.
Dr. Kritsonis has served and blessed the field of education as a teacher, principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, invited guest professor, author, consultant, editor-in-chief, and publisher. He has also earned tenure as a professor at the highest academic rank at two major universities.
In 2005, Dr. Kritsonis was an Invited Visiting Lecturer at the Oxford Round Table at Oriel College in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England. His lecture was entitled the Ways of Knowing through the Realms of Meaning.
In 2004, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis was recognized as the Central Washington University Alumni Association Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies.
Dr. William Kritsonis is a well respected author of more than 500 articles in professional journals and several books. In 1983, Dr. Kritsonis founded the NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS. These publications represent a group of highly respected scholarly academic periodicals. In 2004, he established the DOCTORAL FORUM – National Journal for Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research. The DOCTORAL FORUM is the only refereed journal in America committed to publishing doctoral students while they are enrolled in course work in their doctoral programs. Over 300 articles have been published by doctorate and master’s degree students and most are indexed in ERIC.
Currently, Dr. Kritsonis is a Professor in the PhD Program in Educational Leadership here at Prairie View A&M University.
Dr. William Kritsonis has dedicated himself to the advancement of educational leadership and to the education of students at all levels. It is my honor to bring him to the stage at this time as a William H. Parker Leadership Academy Hall of Honor Inductee.
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